English Translation
and Wider Readership: First English Anthology of Bangla Dalit Poetry
Jyoti Biswas
PhD scholar
Dept. of English Studies
Central University of Jharkhand
Abstract
The publication of Dalit
Poems, Songs and Dialogues from Bengal in English Translation (2019), from
Ababil Books, Kolkata, edited by Asit Biswas and Shubh Brat Sarkar, is first of
its kind in the quarter-old history of Bangla Dalit literature. Although
considered virgin compared to the history of Marathi Dalit literature, Bangla Dalit
literature now can claim to be the oldest Dalit literature with its
millennium-old poetic heritage ranging from the time of Charyapada, the
earliest extant of literary composition around 9th century AD till
contemporary time. This English anthology brought out in public the hidden
treasures from the dark chamber of Dalit history of Bengal. With hundred and
thirty-six poems by ninety-six poets selected from different periods, this
anthology has done two things: it has added a considerable value in the study
of Dalit poetry in English translation alongside other notable Dalit
anthologies, and expands the stretch of the study of Indian literature in
English. The present paper will examine two things: evaluation of dalit
sensibility, and the promises of English translation in the field of Dalit
study that has already diversified Indian literatures, both English and
vernaculars.
Keywords:
Poetry, English
Translation, Anthology, Dalit Literature, Vernaculars, English Study
Translating a text from a source language (SL) to a
target language (TL) is more than a linguistic transportation; it is the
translation of a source culture into a target culture. The emergence of English
as the global language makes it the most viable medium of communication between
two different cultures. Indian readers receive writers like Milan Kundera and
Gabriel García Márquez through English translation, while A. K. Ramanujan
introduced South Indian poetry to American readers through English translation.
Karruku has been introduced in the
postgraduate syllabus of English department at Calcutta University, while
William Radice’s translation of Rabindranath’s short stories has been studied
at Delhi University. This exchange of literary texts represent the contemporary
‘English translation culture.’ English being the commonly adopted target
language (TL) in Translation Studies departments across academic institutes,
the ‘act’ and ‘art’ of translation has widened its application among
professionals and amateurs in India.
Although the academic establishment of Translation
studies across Western universities has first emerged in 1970s1, the
act of translation goes back to ancient time. The Chinese translations of
Buddhist texts are well known. Ashvaghosa’s poem Buddhacarita (The Life
of the Buddha) has been translated in the fifth century AD.2 Panchatantra
or ‘Five Treaties’ was first translated into Pahlavi in the sixth century and
in Arabic in 570 AD.3 Eminent Orientalists such Sir William Johns
translated Sakuntala in 1789 and T. W. Rhys Davids founded the Pali Text
Society to translate Pali texts into English in 1881 in London. All these efforts primarily hint at bridging
the gap between two separate cultures and their respective readers. Translation
became intellectually and academically an important tool to accomplish it. In
this sense, translation is the soundest medium of cultural exchange.
Since 1990s,
cultural turn in Translation studies has gained wider attention. The
interlinked relation between translation and cultural exchange has added a
considerable value and currency in Translation studies in contemporary time.
The Polysystems theory formulated by Evan-Zohar reflects upon the diversity of
poststructuralist study of humanities. Evan-Zohar argues: “no observer of the
history of any literature can avoid recognizing as an important fact the impact
of translations and their role in the synchrony and diachrony of a certain
literature” (Kuhiwczak and Littau 16). Susan Bassnett argues: “… translation plays a major role in
shaping literary systems, that translation does not take place on a horizontal
axis, that the translator is involved in complex power negotiations (mediating
between cultures, as it were)…” (Kuhiwczak and Littau 14). Edwin Gentzler
summarizes the cultural turn in the translation studies in 1990s and figures
out two types of shifts: “… the shift from source-oriented theories to
target-oriented theories and… the shift to include cultural factors as well as
linguistic elements in the translation thinking process” (70). In this respect,
English translation of Dalit literature can be seen as a potent tool to situate
the texts in the global platform.
Dalit literature can be treated as a poststructuralist
phenomenon in Indian literary culture. It has become the voice of those whose
voice had not been heard before. It has become a secure platform for dalits to
cultivate their creative and intellectual potentiality, a cultural capital that
has always been thought to be the monopoly of upper castes. Written in
vernaculars, Dalit literary culture has an immense potentiality of getting
translated into English through which it can reach to wider readership and gain
a profitable market. Prof. Kancha Iliah
argues that unless Dalit culture will recognize English as its own language, it
will remain domestic.4 In the project of English translation, there are both hope
and concern. The relation of marketing and sale with Dalit literature will turn
profitable if the translated texts, whether autobiography or anthology of
poetry, have been included in the syllabi of schools and universities. Although
it seems promising that English translation of any dalit writer’s autobiography
or collection of stories will secure for him more fame and popularity, the
willingness of dominant publishing houses for publishing dalit writers is very
crucial. Meena Kandaswammy once wrote in her blog that “Big media houses which
own major publications only rarely give opportunity to dalit writers… So I want
to tap the power and enormous outreach of internet.”5 Despite this
politics of publication, few publication houses have focused primarily on texts
written by dalit writers, such as Navayana Publications Pvt. Ltd. Ababil Books,
a reprint of Books Way, Kolkata has done a great job in publishing the very
first English anthology of Bangla Dalit poetry in 2019.
In the field of translation of dalit writings into
English, The Poisoned Bread (1992) edited by Arjun Dangle is the first
to appear in the market and draw the attention of the English-speaking readers.
By the time Poisoned Bread has brought great success, many such
anthologies have been published in the same decade and thereafter. An
Anthology of Dalit Literature: Poems (1992), edited by Mulk Raj Anand and
Eleanor Zelliot is another milestone. The Oxford India Anthology of Tamil
Dalit Writing (2012), edited by Ravikumar and R. Azhagarasan introduces the
readers with great resources of dalit writings preserved in Tamil. The
Oxford India Anthology of Telugu Dalit Writing (2016), edited by K. Purushotham
and others, Malayalam Dalit Writing (2011), edited by M. Dasan and
others represent the rich heritage of dalit writings of south India. Two more
English anthologies have to be mentioned, No Alphabet in Sight (2011)
and Steel Nibs Are Sprouting (2013), both of them edited by K.
Satyanarayana and Sushi Tharu. The first one covers up new dalit writings of
Tamil and Malayalam, and the second of Kannada and Telugu. All these
anthologies have been warmly received by scholars as well as general readers,
thus preparing the solid ground of English readership across India and beyond.
More than that, these English anthologies have multiplied the work of
translation in the field of Dalit studies as well.
Our present anthology, Dalit Poems, Songs and Dialogues
from Bengal in English Translation has primarily focused on verse
compositions in Bangla. Although the rise and development of Dalit literatures
in different vernaculars is a cultural phenomenon of contemporary time, the
root of this kind of literature can be traced in texts of medieval period too.
The entire approach made here is to look back in the past and discover the
hidden texts and their authors that bear the hallmark of Dalithood, a stage of
self-realization and dignity.
The genesis of Bangla poetry is traceable simultaneously
with the genesis of Bangla language itself. Haraparsad Sastri discovered many
palm-leaf manuscripts from the royal court of Nepal in 1907 and published them
under the title Hazar Bochhorer Purano Bangla Bhasay Bouddho Gan o Doha6
(Thousand Years Old Buddhist Songs and Hymns in Bangla). Those songs and
hymns were dated back to 9th century, the time of Pala dynasty in
Bengal and Bihar. The subsequent research on those songs and hymns, popularly
known as Charyapada established the claim that those Buddhist songs and hymns
are the oldest record of Bangla language. Since they were songs and hymns, the
Charyapada can certainly be recognized as the earliest collection Bangla verse
composition. The editiors, write: “Charyapada, containing 48 songs, was
composed by Dalits on Dalit subject; it is a work that has Dalit persona. …
Among the poets several belonged to Dalit communities and some of them also
composed works in Bengali…” (xvi). Manohar Biswas, the most representative
dalit writer comments “out of the eighty-four siddhas [Charya poets],
forty-three (sic) were from Dalit communities” ( 87).
Based on the argumentative observations furnished above,
it is certified that Bangla Dalit poetry has its roots in the Charyapada, a
linguistic and cultural product of 9th century AD. Having
established that, the millennium-old Bangla Dalit poetry then can be classified
and arranged into different periods. The following is the periodization of
Bangla Dalit poetry: Old period (9th to 12th century),
Medieval period (12th to 18th century), Colonial period
(1757- 1947), and Modern period (1947-till date).
The Charyapada is the only literary and linguistic extent
in Old period. The editors have selected three poems from Charyapada: poem no.
10, 14, and 28 composed by Kanhupad, Dombipad, and Shabarpad respectively.
These three poems, according to them, bear the closest affinity with dalit
theme. More than that, the composers of them belong to dalit communities too.
Poem no. 10 is about the speaker’s yearning for his beloved Dombi who lives
outside the city. The speaker identifies him as a kapalik, a person who
lives in the burning ghat and does his ascetic and tantric practices:
Outside the city there’s, O Dombi, your hut to live in,
You go on touching shaven headed Brahmin.
O Dombi, I long for you, your love’s sacred,
I’m Kanhu-Kapalik, yogi nude, without hatred. (3)
In poem no 14, the
speaker urges him to steer the boat straight and with speed so as to cross the
river of life. Here, life is metaphoric to the river, Ganga-Yamuna and the
mortal body the boat. Spiritual yearning is the central theme. Poem no. 28 is
the best among all, dealing with physical love and spiritual urge
simultaneously.
In the medieval period we see the flourishing of ballads,
folksongs most of which were composed by dalits. To historicize the medieval
period’s intricate socio-cultural nature and the rise of major literary genres,
the editors have observed:
When the tyranny of the oppressive caste-based society
increased, there were several counter cultural revolutions sweeping across the
Indian subcontinent,… by saints like Namdev, Ravidas, … Chokhamela, Tukaram,
Kabir, Lalan Fakir….While the dominant political forces used religion and
scriptural texts as tools of social control and political dominance, folklores,
folk performances and the songs of saints, fakirs, and bauls circulated the
remnants of the past tradition that favored the egalitarian principles upheld
by all the religions of Indian subcontinent. (xvii)
The long standing Islamic rule played a crucial role in
laying down the foundation “of non-Brahminical, non-Sanskrit literatures along
with alternative religious beliefs in Bengal” (Introduction xvii). In this
background, we have to study the Dalit poetry of medieval period.
The
poems vary both in thematic treatment and form. “Sula’s Bhajan” is great piece of devotional song composed around
fifteenth century. Sula was a native of Bengal and born in a Dalit family.
Sula’s bhajan or devotional song is directed to Krishna. Her urge to
redeem her from any disgrace, here disgrace for being a lower caste is naïve
and ardent:
Little I
know how to invoke, or to sing,
O God,
save me, my name, let no disgrace bring.
Despite
her not, O God, this Chandalini7 says
For a
place near God’s blessed feet, Sula prays. (14)
The rise
of folklore is perhaps the most important cultural phenomenon in medieval
Bangla literature. Dinesh Chandra Sen compiled and edited most of the folktales
and folksongs in his Eastern Bengal Ballads: Mymensing (1923).
Dinesh Chandra Sen writes “The high cultural level reached by the people of
Eastern Mymensing is manifest in their folk-lore and ballads” (xxvii). The
editors selected few excerpts from some of the great ballads composed by dalits
on dalit themes. Mahua The Gypsy Girl by Dvija Kanai, Malayar
Barammasi by Kavi Kanka, Kanka O Lila by Raghusut are some of the
jewels of medieval Bangla folk literature- all contributed by dalits. In all
these ballads, the theme of intercaste love affair on one hand and the caste
rigidity and orthodoxy causing the tragic end of love on the other are dealt
with from a deep concern of social and cultural segregation. But the characters
have shown a greater humanitarian qualities rather than being conservative. The
Brahmin landlord Naderchand fell in love with Mahua, a gypsy girl in Mahua;
and Kanka was looked after by his Chandal8 foster parents in Kanka
O Lila. Among all the ballads compiled in Eastern Bengal Ballads,
Sen recognizes Mahua as the crown of all ballads and hails the poet Dvija Kanai
born in a Namasudra caste for his excellent poetic discipline. The ballads
selected in the present anthology not only deal with intercaste love, but also
represent the contemporary social reality.
The life
and works of Lalan Fakir (1774-1890) is of special interest to the readers of
Bangla literature. He is the greatest baul, composing songs that reflect the
crude reality of caste-based Bengali society of his time. Eight of his songs
have been selected here, expressing futility of caste prejudice on one hand,
and preaching humanitarian values on the other. In one of his songs, he sings:
In an
absurd and strange manner,
All are
holding caste’s banner;
To work
for truth, no one is ready,
All
display its futility… (17)
In another song, he longs for a just human society where
caste or religious discrimination will disappear, and people will discover a
common humanity among all.
In the colonial
period (1757-1947), Great social reformers and educators, Harichand Thakur (1812-1878) and Guruchand Thakur
(1846-1937) led the anti-caste movements in Colonial Bengal. Born in a lower
caste family, Harichand went on to become the Patitpaban (savior of
downtrodden) with his Matua9 religious movement, a major religious
reform among the dalits of East Bengal in the second half of 19th
century. Sri Sri Harililamrita (The life and Miracles of Lord Harichand)
is the founding text of Matuaism. It is a long verse biography in rhymed
couplet written by Tarak Chandra Sarkar (1853-1913) and published in 1916.
Guruchand Thakur (1846-1937), the worthy son of Harichand, carried out his
father’s legacy in the field of social reform. His reformist activities in the
field of education among the dalits of Bengal made him a canonical figure. Sri
Sri Guruchand Charit (The Narrative of the Life of Guruchand Thakur),
written in rhymed couplet by Mahananda Haldar (1899-1972) and published in 1943
is, like Harililamrita, another seminal text. Guruchand Charit is
more revolutionary. It exposes the caste-based discrimination inflicted upon
lower castes and vivifies the Namasudra movement in the time of twentieth
century. The caste prejudice and deep hatred upper castes maintained towards
lower castes get exposed in the following lines:
You know
Namasudra are uneducated.
Illiterate
that is why we keep them suppressed.
If they go to school they will learn
Then we
will lose our admiration. (57)
These two texts have now become a rich repository of
Dalit history and culture in Bengal. As mentioned earlier, the Matua faith has
given rise to a new religious/bhakti literature in Bengal. Widely known as Hari
Sangeet (Songs dedicated to Harichand) numerous songs have been composed on
the life of Harichand Thakur. Aswini Kumar Sarkar (1873-1929) was perhaps the
earliest and most representative among composers. Although spiritual in theme,
these songs promote social awareness as well as morality to the followers of
Matuaism. Raicharan Biswas (1878-1938) was one of the earliest dalit poets who
tried to revolutionize his fellow people against social discrimination. His Jatiyo
Jagoran (National Awakening), published in 1921, is now considered a
canonical poem in the history of Bangla Dalit poetry.
The foundation of Bangla
Dalit Sahitya Sanstha (Bangal Dalit Literary Association) in 1992 is a
decisive moment in the contemporary Dalit culture in Bengal. This is the very
first organized platform set up exclusively by dalit writers and activists of
Bengal to perform both literary and social activities with an ideological and
cultural solidarity. Manohar Biswas, one of the founding members of BDSS and
the most representative of dalit writers gives a detailed account of how the
association came to existence: “The birth of Bangla Dalit Sahitya Sanstha took
place after the tragic suicide of Chuni Kotal, a tribal student of Jhargram....
16th August, 1992 was the darkest day in the history of Bengali
people- the day of her suicide…. Her suicide took place because of her
inability to bear with the burning flame of caste discrimination” (18).
Chaturtha
Dunia (The Fourth World), a biennial literary journal published since 1994
has become the mouthpiece of BDSS. Dalit writers have got a literary journal of
their own to cultivate their creativity in a descent, dignified manner. The
history of Bangla Dalit writings since 1992 have gained widespread recognition,
and readers have got writings of some prominent poets and writers, such as
Manohar Mauli Biswas (b. 1943), Jatin Bala (b. 1949), Achintya Biswas (b.
1955), Dhurjati Laskar (b. 1961), Debashis Mondal (b. 1961), Kalyani Thakur
Chanral (b. 1965), Nikhilesh Ray (b. 1971), Asit Biswas (b. 1972) and many
others.
Most of the poems selected in this anthology have been
taken from contemporary poets who are members of BDSS. The contemporary poems
have multiple dimensions to offer, that in many ways differ from Dalit writings
of colonial period. The Dream Peddler of Debashis Mondal is a sharp
critique of popular imagination of ‘Indian Nationalism’, highlighting the irony
lying behind the appearance:
Those who said, “This Freedom is fake”
They are all kings now
Those who said, “Look this king is nude”
They are king’s coteries now
Those who told, “Break and smash the black hands”
They now are … N. R. I.s
……………………………
Only Meher Ali of our locality
Is very stupid
……………………………
At the deep dark night when everybody is asleep
Meher Ali shouts
“Beware! Beware! Everything is fake.” (142)
Kalyani Thakur Chanral’s The Caste Without a King
exposes the reality of upper caste politics on one hand and calls for a social
awakening on the other. Marichjhapi of Hrishikesh Halder portrays the
barbaric killing of thousands of innocent dalits living at Marichjhapi island
in Sundarban by Communist government of West Bengal in 1978-79. Laxmi Mandi’s Lalgarh
vivifies the local tribal community’s daily way of life spent amidst the
ongoing process of deforestation and other existential threats. Her Aboriginal
can be read as the poetic certification of dalit ethnicity and culture in
Bengal:
We’ve
cleared the jungle
Prepared
farming land
We love
and respect
Our
native country.
We’ve
dug ‘n made farm-land
But
no farmers we’re
Work as
farm-labours
We
are the poor tribes. (149)
Manohar Biswas’s You Are My Poems is a celebration
of dalit creativity. It hails the physical and cultural world of dalits that,
according to the poet, is fertile enough to make dalits creative. Manju Bala
pays homage to Chuni Kotal in her poem Chuni, the Crimson Flicker;
Pallabi Mondal’s No Surrender is a protestant utterance to through
challenge to the oppressor; Nikhilesh Ray vivifies the plight of daily workers
in the characterization of one Soren Mahali in his poem of same title; Sudhir
Mullick personifies his poem that “stay here/ At some dusty corner of this
platform.” In his The Untouchable Poem; Prosenjit Ray brings out the
plight of a “Banana seller’s daughter” in his Female Struggle of Life;
Swapan Biswas portrays grim face of social exclusion in his Rohit Vemula’s
Death and Thereafter. He asks a fundamental question “Who thought, how many
times Vemulas die?/ Since time of growing sense at every step/ How many deaths
they die, if occasions come?” (196).
Apart from short-length free-verse poems, this anthology
includes few long poems composed in the dialogic form. Then themes have been
drawn from the Mahabharata. In Hindu mythology, Akalabya and Shambuka10
represent the world of the downtrodden people. In this sense, the dalit
characters have made an imperishable mark on the pages of Mahabharata and
Ramayana, two Hindu epics celebrating the killing of dalits and tribals in the
name of religious duty. Manohar Biswas’s Ghatotkach-Hidimba Dialogue and
Asit Biswas’s Chitrangada- Babhrubahan Conversation are two such poems
interrogating the dominant Brahminical narrative that has suppressed dalit
characters. In the first poem, Ghatotkach and his mother Hirimba reflects upon
their abandonment and identity crisis caused by Bhima’s rejection of Hidimba as
his worthy wife. The subjugation of womanhood by patriarchy, loss of dignity
and identity of a woman, and the question on the ‘identity of a father’ for
Ghatotkach are major thematic treatments the poet has aptly brought out. In the
second poem, Babhrubahan raises serious allegations about his father Arjun’s
immoral character and irresponsibility. To him, Arjun is no longer a hero, but
a villain who has cheated on his mother and spoilt her dignity. Babhrubahan’s
rebellious character epitomizes the protestant character of contemporary dalits
in many ways.
The readership of Dalit writings is limited in any Indian
vernacular. In this context, English Translation is the most productive
exercise. Bangla Dalit writings have not yet received wider readership because
of lack of English translation. Dalit Poems, Songs and Dialogues from Bengal
in English Translation has brought out a rich harvest of Dalit poetry that
can certainly fill up the gap of English translation on one hand, and invite
wider readership in the harvesting field of Bangla Dalit literature on the
other.
Notes
1 Third International Congress of Applied
Linguistics was held in Copenhagen in 1972. James
S. Homes’ paper “The name and nature of translation studies” was presented
there. Homes asked for a separate discipline in the name of Translation
studies. See en.wickipedia.org/wiki/Translation_studies.
2
The Chinise translation was made by Dharmaksema, a Buddhist scholar in 420
AD. See Cowell, E. B. The Buddha
Carita or the Life of the Buddha, Oxford, Clarendon 1894, reprint: New
Delhi, 1977.
3
The first translation in any non-Indian language is in Middle Persian, better
known as Pahlavi in 550 CE by Burzoe. This became the basis for subsequent
Syriac and Arabic translation. See Olivelle, Partick. Panchatantra: The Book
of India’s Folk Wisdom, Oxford UP, 2009.
4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5xfdUzqMpN8&t=6s
5
(http://sotosay.wordpress.com/ by Karmakar, accessed 18 May 2012).
6
Haraprasad Sastri’s discovery is a landmark in the study of Bangla Language and
literature. See Chatterjee, S. K. Origin and Development of Bengali Language.
New Delhi, Rupa, 2002.
7
Daughter of Matanga, a native Chandal king. RabindranathTagore mentioned
Matanga in his dance drama Chandalika.
8
According to Swapan Kumar Biswas, Chandal was a non-Aryan, indigenous group of
people. They were no longer a part of Hindu society. It is only in the Sena
dynasty (mid-12th century to early 13th century) that it
was given a derogatory meaning. See Biswas, S. K. The Chandals of India: A Democratic Movement. New Delhi, Gyan
Publishing, 2013.
9
It is a major religion in Bengal founded in the second half of 19th
century by Harichand Thakur with millions of downtrodden people of East Bengal,
majority of them are among Namasudra. It is also known as Namasudra movement.
10
Akalabya is a tribal archer in The
Mahabharata and Shambuka is a Sudra sage in The Ramayana. Both of them become victims in the hegemonic
Brahminical society.
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