Caste,
Gender, and Performance in Sharankumar Limbale’s Akkarmashi: A Butlerian
Reading
V.Siva
Research Scholar
School of English and Foreign Languages
The Gandhigram Rural Institute (Deemed to be University)
Gandhigram, Dindigul
Tamil
Nadu, India
&
Dr. S. Balasundari
Associate Professor
School of English and Foreign Languages
The Gandhigram Rural Institute (Deemed to be University)
Gandhigram, Dindigul
Tamil
Nadu, India
Abstract:
This article examines the complex intersections of caste, gender, and
performance in Sharankumar Limbale’s autobiographical novel, Akkarmashi, through a Butlerian lens.
Drawing on the theoretical framework of Judith Butler’s performativity theory,
the article argues that Akkarmashi
subverts dominant norms of caste and gender through its portrayal of the
protagonist’s performance of various social roles. The article analyzes how
Limbale’s text destabilizes the traditional dichotomy of the public and private
spheres, challenging the normative ideas of femininity and masculinity within
the caste system. Moreover, the article suggests that the performance of caste
and gender in Akkarmashi is not
merely an act of imitation but also a means of subversion and resistance. This
article contributes to ongoing conversations about the intersections of caste,
gender, and performance in South Asian literature and offers new insights into
the ways in which literature can be used to expose and challenge oppressive
social structures.
Keywords: Caste, Gender, Performance, Judith
Butler, Dalit, Social Construction, Violence, Discrimination.
Introduction
Akkarmashi is a Marathi language novel written by Sharankumar
Limbale, originally published in 1978. It is considered a landmark in Dalit
literature in India, as it is one of the first novels to be written by a Dalit
author and to explore the experiences of Dalits in India. The word Akkarmashi means ‘untouchable’ in Marathi, and the novel
tells the story of a young boy who is born to an ‘untouchable’ mother and a
upper caste father. The novel is autobiographical in nature, as it draws
heavily on Limbale’s own.
Some of
the major themes of the novel include caste discrimination, social inequality,
poverty, and the struggle for identity and dignity. The novel provides a vivid
and powerful portrayal of the harsh realities of life for Dalits in India,
including their struggles to access education and gainful employment, as well
as their experiences of social exclusion and discrimination. Through the
character of the protagonist, Limbale also explores the themes of identity and
belonging, as the young boy struggles to come to terms with his mixed-caste
heritage and the way in which society views him.
Limbale’s
most notable works include Akkarmashi, which is considered a milestone
in Dalit literature and has been translated into several languages. It is a
semi-autobiographical novel that depicts the life of a Dalit boy and his
struggle for identity and self-acceptance. Limbale’s other notable works
include Hindu (2010), The Dalit Brahmin and Other Stories (2018),
Dalit Sahityache Saundaryshastra (1996) and Towards an Aesthetic of
Dalit Literature (2004). Limbale’s literary contributions have been
significant in shedding light on the issues of Dalit identity, social
inequality, and injustice in India.
Sharankumar
Limbale’s Akkarmashi (Outcaste) is a Marathi autobiographical novel that
was published in 1978. The book explores the experiences of a boy who is born
into the Mahar community, which is considered to be an untouchable caste in
India’s caste system. The protagonist faces discrimination, marginalization,
and social ostracism from birth because of his community’s social status.
The
text is significant because it depicts the intersection of caste, poverty, and
social ostracism. It portrays the lives of people from the lower caste
communities who are forced to live in poverty and suffer from social exclusion.
The novel exposes the ugly reality of the caste system and its impact on the
lives of individuals. The themes explored in Akkarmashi include the caste system, social inequality,
poverty, discrimination, and oppression. The novel also explores the theme of
identity, as the protagonist struggles to come to terms with his identity as an
untouchable. Additionally, the book highlights the importance of education as a
means of liberation and social mobility and, is a powerful critique of the
caste system and its impact on individuals and society. It has become a
significant work in Marathi literature and has been translated into several
Indian languages and English.
The
autobiographical novel Akkarmashi explores the intersection of caste,
gender, and performance in the life of an outcaste. The story follows the
protagonist’s struggle with identity and societal norms that dictate their
place in society. Using a Butlerian lens, we can see how the performance of
gender and caste is constructed and reinforced by society. Butler argues that
gender is not something that is innate or natural but is rather a performance
that is repeated and reinforced through cultural practices and norms.
Similarly, caste is not something that is inherent but is rather a social
construct that is perpetuated through cultural practices and beliefs.
Furthermore,
Butler’s theory of performativity also highlights the possibility of subverting
gender and caste norms through performance. In the novel, the protagonist’s
struggles with their identity and their eventual rebellion against societal
norms can be seen as a form of resistance against the oppressive system of
caste and gender. By refusing to conform, the protagonist is challenging the
very foundations of the system that seeks to control them.
Theoretical Framework
Judith Butler’s Theory of Gender
Performativity
Judith Butler is a philosopher and feminist
scholar who developed the theory of gender performativity in her book Gender
Trouble published in 1990. The theory argues that gender is not a natural
or inherent characteristic of an individual, but rather a social construct that
is created and reinforced through repeated acts of performance.
Judith
Butler’s theory of gender performativity argues that gender is not a fixed or
innate quality, but rather a performance that is constructed and reiterated
through repeated acts and behaviors. In other words, we do not have a ‘true’
gender that exists independently of our actions, but rather our gender is
something that we continually produce and maintain through our words, gestures,
and interactions with others. As Butler puts it, “gender is not a noun, but a
verb” (Gender Trouble 140).
Butler
believes that gender is performed through a series of culturally and socially
determined behaviors, gestures, and expressions that create the illusion of an
essential and natural gender identity. These performances are learned and
practiced throughout an individual’s life through socialization and are constantly
reinforced by society’s expectations and norms. She writes, “gender is always
already a contestation over cultural meanings and their inscription upon the
body, and not a simple fact of bodily existence” (Undoing Gender 23).
According
to Butler, these performances are not just individual acts, but rather
collective practices that create and sustain social norms and expectations
around gender. In other words, gender is not just a personal identity, but a
cultural phenomenon that is constantly being created and reinforced through
social interactions.
One of
the key implications of Butler’s theory is that gender is not something that
can be easily or permanently changed. While it is possible to disrupt or
subvert gender norms through acts of resistance or subversion, these acts do
not necessarily result in a permanent or stable transformation of gender
identity. As Butler puts it, “gender identity might be reconceived as a
possibility, as ‘open’ and ‘unfixed,’ but only through a sustained and critical
inquiry into the ways in which regulatory practices constitute that identity as
a credible ‘unity’“ (Undoing Gender 10).
Overall,
Butler’s theory of gender performativity challenges us to rethink our
assumptions about what gender is, how it operates, and what kinds of
possibilities for change exist within it. As she argues, “if we view gender as
performative, then it becomes clear that there is no pre-existing identity by
which an act or attribute might be measured” (Gender Trouble 142). In other
words, gender is not something that we have, but something that we do, and as
such it is always subject to transformation and renegotiation.
Caste and Gender Performance in Dalit
Literature
Butler’s
theory of gender performativity can be applied to analyze caste and gender
performance in Dalit literature by examining how social norms and expectations
shape individuals’ performances of their gender and caste identities. According
to Butler, gender is not an inherent biological trait but rather a social
construct that is constantly produced and reproduced through repeated
performances. Similarly, caste is also a social construct that is maintained
through performances and rituals.
In
Dalit literature, authors often challenge the traditional performances of caste
and gender by exposing the ways in which these identities are constructed and
maintained through oppressive social norms. Scholars use Butler’s theory to
analyze the performances of gender and caste in the autobiographies of Dalit
women. According to Butler’s theory of performativity, gender is not an innate
quality, but a ‘stylized repetition of acts’ that produce the appearance of an
essential gender identity. Dalit women’s autobiographies expose the ways in
which gender and caste are performed and maintained through oppressive social
norms and rituals.
Butler’s
theory to examine how Dalit women’s performances of gender and caste are shaped
by their experiences of violence and oppression and her theory of
performativity helps us to see that the embodied performances of gender and
caste are not simply individual choices, but are shaped by the social norms and
expectations that dictate how individuals are allowed to perform their
identities. For Dalit women, whose bodies have been marked by caste-based
violence and discrimination, their performances of gender and caste are often
shaped by the trauma and pain that they have experienced.
Butler’s
theory of gender performativity provides a useful framework for analyzing the
performances of caste and gender in Dalit literature. By examining how social
norms and expectations shape individuals’ performances of their identities, we
can better understand the ways in which caste and gender are constructed and
maintained in oppressive ways, and how Dalit authors are challenging these
norms through their writing.
Caste and Gender Performance in Akkarmashi
Caste Performance
The protagonist of the book is a young boy
who is born to a lower-caste family in rural Maharashtra. Throughout the
narrative, he struggles to come to terms with his caste identity and the
discrimination he faces as a result. One of the key moments in the novel where
the protagonist performs his caste identity is when he is denied entry into a
temple because of his caste: “I asked my mother why I was not allowed to enter
the temple. She said it was because we were Akkarmashi, outcastes. I did
not understand what that meant. But I knew it was something bad, something that
made people hate us.” (Limbale 15). It highlights how the protagonist’s caste
identity is not something he chooses, but rather something that is imposed upon
him by society. He is denied access to a religious space simply because of his
caste, which reinforces the social hierarchy that exists in India.
Sharankumar’s
identity is deeply intertwined with his caste, and he feels the need to
constantly perform it in order to be accepted by society. He is constantly
reminded of his status as an outcaste, and he struggles to find his place in
the world. The use of the term ‘performance’ is also significant here. The
speaker’s identity is not simply a given, but is produced and performed through
repeated acts and behaviors that reinforce their position as an akkarmashi.
This performance is shaped by the dominant norms and values of the society in
which they live, and reinforces the power dynamics between different castes and
classes. According to Butler, gender, race, and caste are not fixed categories
but are performative, meaning that they are produced and reproduced through
repeated acts.
Limblae’s
identity is shaped by their mother’s caste and their father’s privileged class
status. The speaker’s mother is an untouchable, a historically oppressed and
marginalized caste in India, while the father is from a privileged class. This
difference in caste and class is also reflected in their living conditions,
with the mother living in a hut and the father in a mansion. The speaker
identifies themselves as an ‘akkarmashi’ or ‘half-caste,’ which suggests that
they are considered illegitimate because of their mixed caste and class
heritage. This labeling of the speaker as illegitimate is an act of performativity
that reinforces the dominant caste and class hierarchy in India.
“My history is my mother’s life, at the most
my grandmother’s my ancestry does not go back any further. My mother is an
untouchable while my father is I can’t from one of the privileged classes of
India. Mother lives in a hut, father
lives in a mansion. Father is a landlord mother language. I am an akkarmashi
(half-caste). I am condemned, branded illegitimate.” (Limbale ix)
The above stanza reflects the intersection of
caste, gender, and class identities, and demonstrates how these identities are
produced and reproduced through performative acts. The speaker’s identification
as an akkarmashi reflects the power dynamics between different castes and
classes in India.
The
narrator’s mother is a key character in this autobigraphical novel, and her own
experiences of caste discrimination help to shape the protagonist’s
understanding of his own identity. One of the ways in which she performs her
caste identity is through her language. The words of mother show how language
is a powerful marker of caste identity in India. The protagonist’s mother
deliberately speaks in a way that marks her as an outcaste, even though she is
capable of speaking in the language of the upper castes. It also highlights how
caste discrimination is not just about physical markers, but also about
linguistic and cultural practices. In short, the characters in Akkarmashi
perform their caste identities in a variety of ways, including through
language, occupation, and physical markers. These performances help to
reinforce the social hierarchy that exists in India and highlight the pervasive
nature of caste discrimination.
Limbale’s
Akkarmashi is highlighting how the caste system’s privileges and social
norms dictate who has power and control over others’ bodies and lives. By
suggesting that their mother’s submission to their father’s appropriation is
not a free choice but rather a consequence of her social position, the speaker
is performing a critique of the caste system and the gender norms that it
reinforces. The speaker is also challenging the idea of immortality and the
ways in which it is tied to caste privilege, suggesting that it is not a
universal or natural concept but rather a social construct that reflects and
reinforces unequal power relations.
“I regard the immortality of my father and
mother as a metaphor for rape. My father had privileges of birth latest
privileges granted to him by the caste system. His relationship with my mother
was respected by society whereas my mother is untouchable and poor. Had she
been born into a high caste or were she rich, would she have submitted to his
appropriation of her?” (Limbale ix )
Limbale
is using the metaphor of immortality to question the social norms and power dynamics
around gender and caste. The speaker suggests that the relationship between
their father and mother was not one of mutual love and respect, but rather one
in which the father had the privilege and power to appropriate the mother’s
body. The speaker suggests that the social respect given to their father’s
relationship with their mother is akin to society’s acceptance of rape. The
book also brings up the caste system, highlighting how their mother’s caste and
economic status put her at a disadvantage in the relationship. The speaker
questions whether their mother would have submitted to their father’s
appropriation of her if she had been born into a higher caste or had more
economic power. (ix)
Akkarmashi records how Dalits feel like an outsider or
an ‘alien’ in a particular locality due to their perceived untouchable status.
The speaker questions the logic behind the idea of untouchability and
caste-based discrimination, highlighting the arbitrary nature of such
classifications. As Butler’s performativity theory suggests that identity is
not fixed, but rather constructed through repeated acts or performances. In
this sense, the speaker’s actions of maintaining personal hygiene and
cleanliness could be seen as a performance that challenges the idea of untouchability
based on caste. Limbale questions the
social norms and expectations surrounding caste performance, suggesting that
cleanliness should be a universal standard rather than a privilege reserved for
certain castes.
“I felt I was an alien in such localities. To
me this way of life seemed hostile… I used clean clothes, bathed every day and
washed myself clean with soap, and brushed my teeth with toothpaste. There was
nothing unclean to me. Then in what sense was I untouchable? A high caste who
is dirty was still considered touchable. This city was made of herds of castes.
Even localities were identified by castes.” (Limbale 106-7)
This
emphasizes that the ways in which caste performance is deeply embedded in the
social and physical structure of the city, with different localities being
identified by castes. This suggests that caste performance is not only an
individual act but also a collective one, with social norms and expectations
being reinforced through the physical and spatial organization of the city. And
also illustrates the complex and arbitrary nature of caste performance, and how
it is perpetuated through social norms and physical structures. The speaker’s
questioning of these norms and their own performance of cleanliness challenges
the boundaries and hierarchies that are imposed by caste.
The Role of Caste in Shaping the Characters’
Lives and Relationships
One of the main ways in which caste affects
the characters in the novel is through social exclusion and discrimination. The
protagonist, who is unnamed, is born into a family of manual scavengers, a
group of people who are responsible for cleaning human waste. As a result of
his caste, he is treated as an outcast and is not allowed to participate in
many social activities. He is also subjected to physical and verbal abuse by
members of higher castes.
Caste
also affects the protagonist’s relationships. He is not allowed to marry
outside of his caste, and his relationships with women from his own caste are
complicated by societal expectations and gender roles. For example, he is
expected to marry a woman from his own caste, but he falls in love with a woman
from a higher caste. This creates tension and conflict between him and his
family.
Moreover,
caste affects the protagonist’s sense of self-worth and identity. He is made to
feel inferior and less deserving of respect and dignity because of his caste.
This leads him to feel ashamed of his background and to try to hide it from
others. He struggles to reconcile his identity as a member of a lower caste
with his desire to be accepted and respected by society. Caste affects the
protagonist’s social standing, relationships, and sense of self-worth, and
highlights the pervasive nature of caste-based discrimination and exclusion in
Indian society.
Gender
Performance
Judith Butler’s concept of gender
performativity argues that gender is not an inherent trait, but rather
something that is socially constructed and performed. Gender performativity is
the idea that individuals construct their gender identity through their actions
and behaviors, which are influenced by societal norms and expectations.
In
Dalit context, Butler’s concept of gender performativity can help us understand
how gender norms and expectations are used to uphold the caste system and
perpetuate oppression against Dalits. For example, traditional gender roles in
Indian society often place men in positions of power and authority, while women
are expected to be submissive and obedient. These gender roles are closely tied
to caste-based hierarchies, with upper-caste men at the top of the social
ladder, and lower-caste women at the bottom. Dalit literature often challenges
these gender norms by portraying women as strong and independent, and by
questioning the authority of men and the patriarchal structures that uphold the
caste system. Through these portrayals, Dalit writers are performing a new kind
of gender identity that challenges traditional gender roles and disrupts the
hierarchical structures of caste and gender.
Limbale’s
autobiographical book Akkarmashi depicts how gender roles are
constructed and imposed upon individuals based on their biological sex. For
instance, the protagonist, who is born male, is expected to conform to
masculine norms and take up a traditionally male occupation. However, as a child,
he is interested in activities that are considered feminine, such as cooking
and taking care of his siblings. This highlights how gender roles are not
inherent but are constructed through socialization and how individuals may
resist these roles.
Limbale
is afraid of their caste identity because they cannot claim their father's
caste and religion, which suggests that their father may have been from a
higher caste. The speaker feels conflicted because they have high-caste blood
running in their body, which makes them feel as if they are not a true Mahar,
the Dalit caste to which they belong.
“I was afraid of my caste because I could not
claim my father’s caste and religion. In a sense I was not a Mahar, because
high-caste blood ran in my body. Could I drain this blood out of my body? My
own body nauseated me. The agony I lived through is my own as much as much as
that of my village. The life of my village was mine. I was wounded by this
landlord’s mansion” (Limbale 82 )
His
struggle with their caste identity is intensified by the fact that their own
body nauseates them. This suggests that the speaker is disgusted with their own
identity and is struggling to reconcile their sense of self with the social
norms and expectations that have been imposed upon them based on their caste
and he suggests that their own personal struggle is representative of the
struggles of their entire village, indicating that the issue of caste identity.
Limbale’s
desire to ‘drain this blood out of their body’ is a powerful metaphor for the
ways in which caste is embodied and internalized. The speaker feels as though
their own body is a source of shame and disgust because of its impure lineage.
This speaks to the idea that caste is not just a social construct, but a deeply
embodied one that shapes the ways in which we experience ourselves and our own
bodies.
The
cultural significance of cows is in Hinduism, where they are seen as sacred and
even regarded as a mother figure. The comparison between the treatment of a
human mother's body and a cow's body highlights the unique position of cows in
Hindu culture. The mention of the Mahar, who is responsible for disposing of
the dead cow, is important in the context of Dalit literature as the Mahar
community is considered to be at the bottom of the caste hierarchy in Hindu
society. Judith Butler's theory of gender performance posits that gender is not
something we inherently possess, but rather it is something that is performed
through societal norms and expectations. Similarly, the treatment of cows in
Hinduism can be seen as a form of performative culture, where the social
practices and beliefs surrounding cows are performed by individuals in Hindu
society. The fact that the Mahar community is responsible for disposing of dead
cows highlights their position as a marginalized and oppressed community in
Hindu society. Additionally, the weeping of the cow owner and the sad
expression of the cow-pan can be seen as a gendered performance of grief and
attachment, where the cow is personified and given the status of a mother
figure. Overall, the stanza serves as a powerful commentary on the ways in
which gender and caste intersect and impact the treatment of animals and
marginalized communities in Hindu society.
“Hindus see the cow as their mother. A human
mother is cremated but when a cow dies they need a Mahar to dispose it of. The
owner weeps when her animals die. The cow-pan looks sad. The owner has to give
a certain measure of grain to the Mahar who takes the dead animal away.”
Limbale 14)
The
book also explores how individuals who do not conform to gender norms face
discrimination and violence. The protagonist’s sister is ostracized by the
community for not conforming to feminine norms and choosing to wear masculine
clothing. Gender performance in the work can be seen in the way the
protagonist’s mother is treated. As a Dalit woman, she is subjected to social
and economic marginalization, and her gender is used to further oppress her.
Limbale writes, “My mother was a Dalit, and her womanhood was doubly oppressed.
She had no right to express her desire, no right to express her anger” (Limbale
15). The protagonist’s mother’s gender is used to restrict her agency and
autonomy, and her identity as a Dalit woman makes her doubly vulnerable to
discrimination and violence. In brief, Limbale exposes the violence and
injustice that is perpetuated through the rigid enforcement of gender norms. In
short, serves as a powerful commentary on the ways in which gender and caste
intersect and impact the treatment of animals and marginalized communities in
Hindu society.
The Intersection of Gender and Caste in Akkarmashi
The autobiographical novel is a powerful
critique of the caste system and patriarchy that oppress women from lower
castes. Limbale uses his own experiences growing up in a Dalit community to
portray the struggles of women from his community. The text also highlights the
gender-based violence that Dalit women face. Limbale writes, “The Dalit woman’s
body is a site of violence. She is beaten, raped, and humiliated with impunity.
Her body is used to satisfy the sexual desires of men from the dominant castes”
(Limbale 34).
Furthermore,
Limbale critiques the role of religion in perpetuating the oppression of women
from lower castes. He believed that Religion is a tool used by the upper castes
to maintain their power over the lower castes. It teaches us to accept our lot
in life and not question our oppressors. In Akkarmashi, Limbale calls
for a revolution against the caste system and patriarchy.
Intersectional
Analysis of Performance in Akkarmashi
In Limbale’s Akkarmashi, an
intersectional analysis can be seen to understand the ways in which caste,
gender, and poverty intersect to shape the experiences of the protagonist.
Firstly, the novel highlights the impact of caste on the life of the
protagonist, who is born into a family of Dalit leather-workers. The
protagonist’s experiences are shaped by the pervasive discrimination and
violence faced by Dalits in India. He is denied access to education, employment
opportunities, and basic human rights, solely because of his caste.
Furthermore, the protagonist’s social status as a Dalit intersects with his
gender, resulting in double discrimination. As a Dalit man, he faces the brunt
of caste-based violence and discrimination, but as a man, he also benefits from
patriarchal structures that privilege men over women.
Secondly,
poverty is another factor that intersects with the protagonist’s caste and
gender, creating further challenges. The protagonist’s family lives in extreme
poverty, and his mother and sister are forced to engage in sex work to make
ends meet. The intersection of caste, gender, and poverty creates a vicious
cycle of marginalization and exclusion, making it nearly impossible for the protagonist
to break out of his circumstances.
Further,
the novel also sheds light on the role of religion in perpetuating caste-based
discrimination. The protagonist’s family members are devout followers of
Hinduism, which is used as a tool to justify their subjugation. The
intersection of caste, religion, and gender creates a complex web of power
dynamics that continue to shape the lives of millions of Dalits in India.
Another example of the intersection of caste and gender can be seen in the
protagonist’s own experiences of discrimination. Despite being half-Brahmin, he
is still considered “impure” by Brahmins because of his Dalit mother. In one
passage, he describes how his caste status affects his interactions with girls
from higher castes: “I knew that no girl from a higher caste would ever look at
me. They would see the impurity in my blood, the taint of my mother’s caste.
Even if they did, their families would never allow them to marry me. I was an
outcast, a pariah” (Limbale 47). This highlights the ways in which caste and
gender intersect to limit opportunities for Dalit men as well. The
protagonist’s caste status makes him ineligible for marriage with girls from
higher castes, and his gender further compounds his marginalization.
Caste and Gender Performance Affect the Lives
and Experiences
The novel portrays how the caste system is
ingrained in society and affects the lives of individuals belonging to the
lower castes. Limbale describes how his birth in a Dalit family determines his
fate and how he is forced to lead a life of marginalization and exclusion. The
author’s birth in a lower caste results in his exclusion from society, and he
is not allowed to participate in many of the opportunities that are available
to others.
Moreover,
the novel also portrays the effects of gender performance on the lives of
women. The author describes how women belonging to the lower castes are
oppressed and exploited. Women are often forced to perform gender roles that
are imposed upon them by society, which limits their opportunities for growth
and development. Limbale writes, “I realized that I was a woman, and as a
woman, I was nothing, a mere shadow of existence” (Limbale 36). The author
portrays how women are reduced to mere objects and are not treated as individuals
with their own identity and agency.
Additionally,
the novel highlights the impact of caste and gender on the education system.
The author describes how education is denied to those belonging to the lower
castes, which further perpetuates their marginalization and exclusion from
society. The author shows how the caste system perpetuates the marginalization
of those belonging to lower castes, as they are denied opportunities for
education and social mobility.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this article sheds light on
the complex intersections of caste, gender, and performance in Indian society.
Through a close examination of the protagonist’s struggles with gender identity
and caste oppression, this article illustrates how social norms and structures
shape individual experiences and performances. Additionally, by drawing upon
Butlerian theory, the author highlights the performative nature of caste and
gender, emphasizing how these categories are constructed and maintained through
repeated acts of performance. Overall, this article offers valuable insights
into the dynamics of caste and gender in India, and underscores the need for
continued critical engagement with these issues. Using a Butlerian lens to
analyze Akkarmashi can reveal a number of insights into the ways in
which caste, gender, and performance intersect in Indian society. One key
insight is that caste and gender are both performative categories that are
constructed through social norms and practices. In other words, people are not
inherently ‘male’ or ‘female’ or ‘untouchable,’ but rather these categories are
constructed through the ways in which people behave and interact with one
another.
Works
Cited
Bama,
and M. Vijayalakshmi. “Dalit Literature.” Indian Literature, vol. 43,
no. 5 (193), 1999,
pp. 97–98. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23342648.
Accessed 29 Mar. 2022.
Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism
and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
Butler, Judith. Undoing Gender.
Routledge, 2004.
G.
P. D. “Dalit Literature.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 17, no. 3,
1982, pp. 61–62.
JSTOR,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/4370571.
Accessed 29 Mar. 2022.
Limbale, Sharankumar. Towards An Aesthetic of
Dalit Literature. Translated by Alok Kumar, Raj. Dalit Literature and
Criticism. Orient Longman, 2019. Mukherjee, Orient Longman, 2012.
Limbale, Sharankumar. Akkarmashi.
Oxford University Press, 2006.
Limbale, Sharankumar. Akkarmashi.
Translated by Santosh Bhoomkar, Oxford University
Press,
2003.
Muthaiah,
P. “Politics of Dalit Identity.” The Indian Journal of Political Science,
vol. 65, no. 3,
2004,
pp. 385–402. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41856064. Accessed 29
Mar. 2022.
Queen,
Christopher. “Reading Dalit Autobiographies in English: A Top Ten List.” CASTE:
A
Global
Journal on Social Exclusion, vol. 2, no. 2, 2021, pp. 281–94. JSTOR,
https://www.jstor.org/stable/48645682. Accessed 20 Mar. 2022.