How literature gave birth to existentialism
Nasrin
Parvin
Department
of English
University
of Calcutta
Howrah,
West Bengal, India
Abstract:
Seemingly, coined by the French philosopher Gabriel
Marcel (in mid 1940’s), the term existentialism has its influence on
philosophy, literature and art. Existentialism
is primarily, a reaction to and a voice of protest against all the
rationalistic and speculative philosophies, particularly Hegel’s philosophy
of Pure thought, which consider human
beings as a puppet in the hands of God and his ‘immanent will’. Philosophically
Existentialism may be “characterized as a reawakening of man’s interest in
himself (Kneller, 1958,). Existentialism came into existence as a consequence
of industrialisation, urbanization and the world wars specially Second World
War. Such events leave people in complete disillusioned condition and they
start pondering over the thought of their purpose in this world. Existentialism
focuses on the condition of human existence, and an individual’s emotions,
actions, responsibilities, and thoughts, or the meaning or purpose of life.
Existential philosophers often focus more on what is subjective, such as
beliefs and religion, or human states, feelings, and emotions, such as freedom,
pain, guilt, and regret, as opposed to analyzing objective knowledge, language,
or science. In literature existentialism is specially promoted by Jean-Paul
Sartre, Albert Camus, Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger
Simone de Beauvoir, Karl Jaspers, Maurice Merleau-Ponty etc.
Keywords:
Existentialism, Absurd, Authenticity, Meaninglessness, Philosophy, Literature
Philosophical theories help to shape our worldview, give
us moral lessons, and contribute to the development of knowledge, culture, and
society as a whole. These theories are framed after observing human predicament
and when literary works explore those theories they become popular. Though
existentialism originated as a philosophical theory, its influence extends to
the realm of literature, making it relevant to both fields. It’s important to note
that existentialist literature often serves as a means of exploring and
illustrating existentialist philosophy. Existentialism emerges from the notion
of nihilism and crisis of modernity. By introducing his notion of “the mass
man”, Ortegay Gasset tries to create a society where everybody will feel just
like everybody else. In their conceptions of “the public” (Kierkegaard), “the
herd” (Nietzsche), and “the They” (Heidegger), existentialists strongly
criticizes the routinized ways of being that characterize mass society. And the
novels and short stories of Dostoevsky, Camus, and Kafka capture the void and
monotony of the ministerial class and the paranoia and disbelief that arises s
when life is regulated and controlled by faceless bureaucrats. The loss of
faith in traditional belief makes people hopeless. Of all the existentialists,
Nietzsche is the most influential and prophetic in recognising and
conceptualizing the crisis. With the death of God and the loss of moral
absolutes, we are exposed to existence “in its most terrible form … without
meaning or aim” (Nietzsche). The existentialists have always stressed upon
being authentic and have a subjective view of the world. To be authentic takes
immense courage and power according to Nietzsche, not everyone has the inborn
power to rebel against tradition. He says, “Only a very few people can be
free,”. Heidegger is not interested in a
systematic explanation of what we are, as a phenomenologist, he is concerned
with how we are, his theory Dasein refers to “the subject’s way of being” that
embodies a tacit understanding of how to be in that world. Rejecting
Heidegger’s principal of the ‘essence’ of Dasein lies in its existence”, Sartre
says, “existence precedes essence”. According to Nietzsche we don’t have any
pre -given essence, our choices and actions provides essence to our existence
and thus our identity is created. Existentialists reveal how we internalize
worldly aspects, which shapes the way we live. In her path breaking work The
Second Sex, Beauvoir describes this point by showing how a woman tends to
internalize the dominant andocentric worldview, resulting in a projection of
herself as weak, subordinate and inferior.
Existentialist
themes and ideas can be found in literature prior to the formal emergence of
existentialism as a philosophical theory in the 19th and 20th
centuries. “Notes from Underground” (1864) is Dostoevsky’s novella that
explores the psychological struggles of the nameless protagonist, who grapples
with nihilism, alienation and the torment of self-awareness. These themes
resonate with existentialist thoughts. Soren Kierkegaard was a philosopher, but
his philosophical writings are mostly literary pieces. His pseudonymous works,
such as “Fear and Trembling” (1843) and “The Sickness unto Death” (1849), talks
about the inner conflicts of individuals in their endeavour of faith and
authenticity, themes that are later embraced by existentialists.
Friedrich
Nietzsche, another philosopher with great literary qualities, analysed themes
related to individuality, nihilism, and the will to power. Works like “Thus
Spoke Zarathustra” (1883-1885) and “Beyond Good and Evil” (1886) contain
elements that resembles with existentialist ideas. Franz Kafka’s works,
including “The Metamorphosis” (1915) and “The Trial” (1925), are often regarded
as early examples of existentialist literature. His writing focuses on themes
of absurdity, alienation, and the individual’s struggle against
incomprehensible systems. The Portuguese poet and writer Fernando Pessoa explored
existential themes in his poetry. His works touch upon the nature of identity,
existence, and subjectivity. Leo Tolstoy in his "The death of Ivan Ilyich”
(1886), portrays the existential crisis of the titular character as he
confronts his own mortality. The novella raises questions about the meaning of
life and the pursuit of authenticity. Hermann Hesse in his “Steppenwolf”
(1927), explores the alienation and inner turmoil of the protagonist, Harry
Haller. The novel delves into themes of duality, the conflict between societal
norms and individuality, and the search for self-understanding.
There
are also literary works published after the emergence of existentialism in
philosophy. These works can be viewed as the practical representation of the
given theory. Through the bleak narratives they present before us characters
which help us to explore the theory more precisely as examples always help to
understand a definition better. Jean-Paul Sartre writes “No Exit” in 1944, an
existentialist play originally published in French as Huis Clos (meaning “In
Camera” or “behind closed doors”) which is includes the popular quote, “Hell is
other people.”
Existentialist
themes are shown in the Theatre of the Absurd, notably in Samuel Beckett’s
Waiting for Godot, in which two men divert themselves while they wait for
someone (or something) named Godot who never comes. They claim to be associated
with Godot but in fact hardly know him, admitting they would not identify him
if they saw him. The play draws an attitude toward man’s experience on earth:
the poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, and bewilderment of
human experience that can only be brought together in mind and art of the
absurdist. The play also examines questions such as death, the meaning of human
existence and the place of God in human existence. Albert Camus’ The Myth of
Sisyphus (which introduces his theory of the absurd) shows Sisyphus’s endless
and meaningless toil as a metaphor for modern lives spent working at futile
jobs in factories and offices. Sisyphus represents an absurd hero who lives
life to the fullest, hates death and is condemned to a pointless task.
According to Camus absurdity is the result of our desire for clarity and
meaning within a world and condition that offers neither, which he expressed in
works like “The Stranger” and “The Plague”, which often pointedly resonate as
stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition.”The
Stranger” tells the story of Meursault, an emotionally detached Algerian who
commits a senseless murder and grapples with the meaninglessness of life and
“The Plague” explores the outbreak of a deadly plague in the town of Oran and
the existential struggle of its inhabitants in the face of suffering and death.
Critic Martin Esslin in the book Theatre of the Absurd pointed out how many
contemporary playwrights such as Samuel Beckett, Eugene lonesco, Jean Genet,
and Arthur Adamov wove into their plays the existentialist belief that we are
absurd beings lost in a universe empty of real meaning. Lastly “The Outsider”
by Colin Wilson is a novel that follows the life of its protagonist, who
experiences moments of intense alienation and existential crisis.
Literature
served as a powerful medium for existentialist thinkers to convey their philosophical
ideas and for readers to engage with existentialist themes on a personal and
emotional level. It provided a platform for the exploration of existential
questions about individuality, freedom, alienation, and the search for meaning
in the face of life’s inherent absurdity. So from this angle it can be said
that literature gave birth to existentialism but to say so will not be
justified totally. It is a well known fact that Freud has named his thesis
Oedipus complex under the shed of Sophocles’s tragic hero Oedipus but still it cannot
be said that Sophocles is the founder of Oedipus complex. Similarly it is true
that literary works owned the characteristics of existentialism before and
after the establishment of the theory still it cannot be regarded as the birth
giver of existentialism. To conclude it can be said that though philosophy is
the father of existentialism literature is the domain that has nurtured it
throughout the century. Without literature it wouldn’t have proliferated. But
would have remained in the domain of Philosophy or Sociology.
Works Cited
Wartenberg, Thomas
E. Existentialism: A Beginner’s Guide,
One world Publication, 2008.
Crowell, Steven. The Cambridge Companion to Existentialism,
Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Bakewell, Sarah. At the Existentialist Café: Freedom, Being,
and Apricot Cocktails, Other Press (US), 2016.
Kaufmann, Walter. Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sartre,
Meridian Books, 1956.