Voices of the North-East: Exploring Women's Space in Literature

 

Voices of the North-East: Exploring Women's Space in Literature

Abhinaba Mukherjee

Independent Research Scholar

Abstract:

The growth of women’s writing in North-East literature (NEL) in English offers a meaningful way to explore how gender, patriarchy, and domestic life intersect in this unique region. Women writers from the North-East have made their mark in the literary world, playing a key role in shaping the broader narrative of North-East literature. Their stories often focus on the lives of women in conflict zones, highlighting the complex ways these experiences shape who they are. These writers face the challenge of embracing modernity while also pushing back against traditional patriarchal norms. Tribal Feminism helps us understand their work by providing a fresh perspective within feminist studies, emphasizing that the experiences of North-East women should be seen as central, not secondary, to the region’s literary and cultural discussions. As we continue to explore North-East writing in English, it’s crucial to put women’s voices at the forefront in understanding the region’s evolving identity.

Keywords: Modernity, North-East Literature, Women’s Writing, The Region’s Evolving Identity, Tribal Feminism

A. Introduction: Literature from the North-East region is deeply rich and complex, reflecting the area’s unique mix of ethnicities and languages in a way that sets it apart from the rest of India. The short stories, poetry, and prose from this region often act as powerful social commentaries, highlighting issues that are specific to the North-East. These writers give voice to experiences and perspectives that might otherwise go unnoticed. Women writers from the North-East, in particular, address these themes through their work, with gender playing a significant role in shaping their stories, regardless of their community or background. As women increasingly lead the literary scene in the region, it's crucial to take a closer look at their contributions. This paper aims to explore the works of these emerging women writers and to understand their fiction within the socio-cultural and historical contexts that influence their narratives. The North-East region of India, consisting of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Sikkim, has experienced significant geopolitical changes since joining the Indian Union post-Independence. Historically distinct in culture, society, language, and religion from mainland India, the region's integration was complex. Today, North East literature addresses postcolonial themes of identity, race, and history, with a growing focus on gender and women's issues. This literary evolution challenges stereotypes and embraces diverse perspectives, particularly through the voices of women writers such as Indira Goswami, Temsula Ao, and Mamang Dai, who highlight women's experiences in various contexts.

Women's movements have also emerged in the North-East, driven by the impacts of regional conflicts. Traditionally active in social, cultural, and political spheres, women in the region often enjoy more freedom compared to other parts of India. Notable movements include the Meira Paibi in Manipur, protesting against the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA), and the Naga Mother’s Association, which opposed violence with the slogan “Shed no more Blood.” Irom Sharmila, known as the Iron Lady, became an icon against AFSPA, sharing her struggle in the poem ‘Birth’.

Tribal feminism in the North East addresses the unique challenges faced by women within both patriarchal communities and broader societal structures, calling for a distinct narrative that places women’s experiences at the centre of the region's consciousness. Literary works like Dr. Rita Chowdhury’s ‘Chinatown Days’ (2017), which explores the plight of the Assamese-Chinese community during the 1962 Indo-China war, and Temsula Ao’s ‘These Hills Called Home’ (2005), which delves into the conflicts between Naga separatists and the Indian government, reflect these themes. Both novels highlight the impact of political turmoil on women and the cultural landscape of the region. Similarly, Mitra Phukan’s ‘The Collector’s Wife’ (2005) examines the personal and societal struggles of a woman named Rukmini against the backdrop of Assam's ULFA and student movements, paralleling the broader adversity faced by the region. Particularly, these works underscore the importance of recognizing women’s perspectives in understanding the North-East's complex history and cultural identity. The North-East region of India, encompassing states such as Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Sikkim, has a vibrant literary tradition that deeply explores the region's complex socio-political realities, particularly through the narratives of women writers. Srutimala Duara, from Assam, examines the roots of terrorism and the resulting community suffering in her novel ‘Travelling with Dreams’ (2001). Her character Jibon symbolizes the disillusionment of young men with oppressive institutions, while ‘Ashes in the Sea’ (2019) follows Smriti’s emotional journey from Assam to South India, reflecting nostalgia for a lost homeland.

Naga author Easterine Kire delves into the history and identity of Nagaland in her works, with novels like ‘A Naga Village Remembered’ (2003) reconstructing Naga-British conflicts through oral traditions. Her other works, such as ‘Mari’ (2011) and ‘A Respectable Woman’ (2019), explore themes of nationalism, identity, and the struggles of Naga women against the backdrop of war and cultural change. Mamang Dai from Arunachal Pradesh juxtaposes tribal life with the forces of globalization in her novel ‘The Legends of Pensam’ (2006), questioning the constraints on tribal women even in relatively liberal societies. Her characters, like Nenem, face the difficult choice between love and land, highlighting the deep connection between identity and homeland.

Women writers from the North-East use their personal experiences to address broader societal issues, challenging traditional norms and exploring how women navigate private and public spaces. Kire's ‘Terrible Matriarchy’ (2007) critiques patriarchal oppression in Naga society, while Temsula Ao’s ‘These Hills Called Home’ (2006) portrays the brutalization of women in conflict zones, focusing on their resilience and resistance. Indira Goswami’s ‘The Moth Eaten Howdah of the Tusker’ (1988) offers a critical view of male-dominated society, focusing on the struggles of women like Giribaala and calling for social change in works such as ‘The Man from Chinnamasta’ (2005).These authors, through their exploration of women's experiences, challenge societal conventions and provide valuable insights into the unique cultural and social landscape of the North-East. Mitra Phukan’s novel ‘A Monsoon of Music’ captures the cultural essence of Tamulbari, a small town where traditional values intersect with the world of music. The protagonist, Nomita, finds herself torn between these two contrasting realms. Phukan’s deep musical knowledge and keen insight into human behaviour shine through in her portrayal of diverse characters. Janice Pariat, in ‘Boats on Land’ (2012) and ‘Nine Chambered-Heart’ (2017), brings a fresh perspective to North-Eastern literature, focusing on women’s experiences. In ‘Nine Chambered-Heart’, the protagonist’s character is revealed through the memories of eight men who loved her, emphasizing the voicelessness that many women historically endure. Pariat is one of the few writers from the region to sensitively explore lesbian identities and adolescent complexities, echoing Judith Butler’s feminist theory, which advocates for inclusivity by recognizing both women’s and LGBTQ+ experiences. These authors, while highlighting female experiences, also delve into the broader human condition, reflecting a nuanced understanding of gender that transcends simple categorization. Their work shares a common thread of representing women’s experiences while also exploring male perspectives.

The underrepresentation of North-Eastern history and culture is a critical issue for writers like Mamang Dai, Temsula Ao and Rita Chaudhury, who draw on the region's rich oral traditions. These traditions, often overlooked by mainstream logocentric biases, form the foundation of the region's cultural storytelling. For instance, Mamang Dai’s ‘Legends of Pensam’ translates the oral narratives of the Adi community into written form, illustrating the deep connection between people and nature as they navigate modern challenges. Her ‘River Poems’ further highlight the importance of stories and memories in preserving cultural identity.

Ecofeminism offers another lens through which to view the works of North-Eastern women writers, as they draw parallels between the exploitation of nature and the oppression of women. The region, known for its biodiversity, has faced significant ecological disruption due to modern developments, affecting tribal communities' cultural and social fabric. This ecological consciousness is evident in the works of writers like Temsula Ao, Mamang Dai, and others, where landscapes are not merely settings but integral parts of the narrative. In their stories, nature is portrayed as a vital force that shapes and defines the lives of the characters, symbolizing deeper desires and hidden complexities within the human experience.

B. Aims and Objectives of this Study: The primary aim of this study is to critically examine the contributions of women writers from the North-East region of India, with a particular focus on how their fiction reflects and engages with the socio-cultural, historical, and political realities of the area. This includes an exploration of how gender and identity intersect in their narratives, offering unique perspectives on the region’s postcolonial challenges, ethnic diversity, and ongoing struggles for justice and representation. Again, the Objectives of this study is stated below:

1. Analyse Women's Literary Contributions: To explore the literary works of key women writers from the North-East, such as Indira Goswami, Temsula Ao, Mamang Dai, Mitra Phukan, and Janice Pariat, focusing on how their narratives reflect the distinct socio-political dynamics of the region.

2. Gender and Identity Exploration: To examine the role of gender in shaping the themes and narratives in North-Eastern literature, particularly how women navigate societal expectations and political conflicts, with attention to feminist and tribal feminist perspectives.

3. Contextualize within Historical and Political Frameworks: To place the literary works within the broader historical, cultural, and political contexts of the North-East, emphasizing issues like postcolonial identity, race, and women’s experiences during periods of political turmoil, including insurgencies and regional conflicts.

4. Highlight Ecofeminism and Oral Traditions: To investigate the role of nature and ecofeminism in the writings of women authors from the region, identifying how environmental concerns are intertwined with the cultural and social lives of tribal communities, particularly in relation to oral traditions.

5. Examine Gender and Conflict: To assess how women’s literary voices articulate the impacts of conflict, political unrest, and social movements in the region, especially in works that highlight the involvement of women in protest movements and their resilience in the face of violence.

6. Challenge Stereotypes and Promote Diverse Perspectives: To challenge existing stereotypes about North-East India by showcasing the complexity and diversity of voices from the region, emphasizing the importance of women’s perspectives in shaping the region’s literary landscape and cultural identity.

Thus, this study aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of North-East India’s rich literary tradition, focusing on how women’s narratives critically engage with broader social issues, from gender and conflict to environmentalism and cultural identity.

C. Research Methodology: In ‘A Room of One’s Own’ (1929), Virginia Woolf emphasized the need for ‘space’ and ‘freedom’ for women to create art, a sentiment that deeply resonates with the women of North-East India. For years, these women have fought to establish their presence in both regional and national literary spaces. Today, the literary landscape of the North-East is rich with the contributions of its women writers. While it’s easy to fall into the trap of categorizing literature by gender, which can reinforce stereotypes, the focus here is on recognizing women’s writing as an essential part of North-East literature, not something separate from it. Women often bring different perspectives to their experiences, and it is these perspectives that make the works of North-Eastern women writers stand out. The idea of ‘home’ is particularly complicated in the North-East, especially when viewed through the lenses of gender, women’s issues, and feminism. In a postcolonial world where identity politics play a significant role, the internal conflicts and struggles within the region further muddy the definitions of ‘home’ and ‘homeland.’ Tillotama Mishra points out that North-East literature often carries a deep awareness of cultural loss and recovery, shaped by interactions with other cultures. Similarly, Margaret Ch. Zama observes that the emerging literature from the North-East, which has been shaped by historical and political trauma, brings forth voices that need to be heard in India’s diverse cultural landscape. These writings are a reflection of the region’s communities, languages, and worldviews, and they play a vital role in preserving cultural and ethnic identities. Amidst this vibrant literary scene, women writers from the eight states of the North-East are carving out their own space and contributing to a unique literary discourse. An intriguing aspect of their work is the exploration of tribal feminism. These writers delve into the specific challenges faced by women in the North-East, who grapple not only with traditional patriarchal issues but also with the complexities of political intervention, insurgency, and counterinsurgency.

D. Women’s Role in Traditional Societies: The tradition of women writing in English in India is a relatively new development, largely gaining traction after the British colonial period introduced formal education. However, long before this, women were already expressing themselves through fiction, drama, poetry, and folktales in their regional languages. In Manipur, for example, the ‘Shumang Leela’ theatre groups have a rich history where female performers take the stage to confront and explore pressing issues like domestic violence, corruption, polygamy, and military oppression. These performances have played a vital role in bringing women’s struggles to the forefront and challenging the societal norms that confine them. In Assam, the role of journals and periodicals was pivotal in empowering women to share their voices. These publications provided a platform for women to publish their poems, stories, and articles, allowing them to build confidence and speak out against the various forms of oppression they faced. Notably, journals like ‘Ghar Jeuti’, run by women, were dedicated to promoting women's writing, helping to cultivate a vibrant literary culture in the region. Through these outlets, women began to engage in discussions about education, freedom, and gender equality, gradually making their presence felt in the broader public conversation.

E. Representation of Women in North-East Literature:

1. Early Literature: Indira Goswami is a significant literary figure whose contributions have made a notable impact on the literary scene of the North-East. Her work, primarily written in regional languages, transcended local boundaries and reached a broader audience. Goswami’s life experiences deeply influenced her fiction, where she boldly addressed feminist themes through her characters. Her novels often depict women who face severe social oppression and whose desires are overlooked by society. These characters, overwhelmed by their unfulfilled longings, frequently find themselves driven to despair. She stands out as one of the few Indian women writers who openly portrayed a woman’s sexual needs as a fundamental right. Her novel in Kamrupi Dialect entitled ‘The Moth Eaten Howdah of a Tusker’ challenges the suppression of female sexuality and introduces groundbreaking perspectives in Assamese and Indian literature. Goswami's work also includes sharp critiques of traditional Hindu customs and rituals, which she saw as tools for the oppression of women, especially within a patriarchal system that burdens Hindu women and widows. On the other hand, contemporary women writers from the North-East, who write in English, are often first-generation authors with more privileged backgrounds. This privilege has allowed them to receive solid educations and adopt more cosmopolitan viewpoints. Their choice to write in English is motivated by the desire to connect with a wider audience. Despite the region's diversity, these writers share a common experience that links them beyond political divides. The rise of English fiction from the North-East, including both novels and short stories, reflects significant growth, with women writers playing a crucial role in this literary development.

2. Modern Literature: Over the past decade, women writers from the North-East, particularly from Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, and Arunachal Pradesh, have made significant contributions to English fiction. While Mizoram and Sikkim are just beginning to enter this literary arena, with emerging talents like Yishey Doma, Manipur and Tripura have yet to see a strong presence of women writing in English, though translations of regional works by women continue to be published. Nagaland has produced two notable writers, Temsula Ao and Easterine Kire, both of whom have garnered national recognition for their impactful storytelling. Ao’s well-known works include ‘These Hills Called Home’ (2006) and ‘Laburnum for My Head’ (2010). Kire’s novels, such as ‘A Naga Village Remembered’ (2003), ‘A Terrible Matriarchy’ (2007), ‘Mari’ (2010), and ‘When the River Sleeps’ (2014), which won the Hindu Literary Prize, have brought the unique narratives of Nagaland to a wider audience. From Meghalaya, sisters Anjum Hasan and Daisy Hasan offer distinct perspectives as they write from the vantage point of outsiders. Their novels explore issues like xenophobia, the existential struggles of youth, and the treatment of North-Easterners in the rest of India. Daisy Hasan's ‘The To-Let House’ (2010) and Anjum Hasan’s ‘Lunatic in My Head’ (2007), ‘Neti Neti’ (2009), ‘Difficult Pleasures’ (2012), and ‘The Cosmopolitans’ (2015) delve deeply into these themes. Additionally, Belinder Dhanoa’s works, including ‘Waiting for Winter’ (1991) and ‘Echoes in the Well’ (2014), along with Bijoya Sawian’s ‘Shadow Men’ (2010) and ‘A Family Secret and Other Stories’ (2014), explore complex issues within the Khasi society, including communal violence and matriarchal structures. Assam is home to significant literary voices like Mitra Phukan, who has written ‘Terrorist Camp Adventure’ (2003), ‘The Collector’s Wife’ (2005), and ‘A Monsoon of Music’ (2011), and Jahnavi Barua, known for ‘Next Door Stories’ (2008) and ‘Rebirth’ (2010). Their works often reflect the insurgency movements and the lush ecological landscape of Assam. From Arunachal Pradesh, Mamang Dai, a recipient of the Padma Shri, has brought the rich oral traditions and folklore of the Adi tribe to light in her collections ‘The Legends of Pensam’ (2006), ‘Stupid Cupid’ (2009), and ‘The Black Hill’ (2014). In Mizoram, Malsawmi Jacob, a pioneering English writer, tackles the state's insurgency of the 1960s in her novel ‘Zorami’ (2014).Emerging writers like Janice Pariat, whose debut ‘Boats on Land’ (2012) won the Sahitya Akademi Young Writer Award, and whose novel ‘Seahorse’ (2014) explores themes of myth, identity, and political unrest, are also making waves. Other rising voices include Avinuo Kire with ‘The Power to Forgive and Other Stories’ (2015) and Suzanne Sangi with ‘Facebook Phantom’ (2013) and ‘Jo’s Journal’ (2014). These contemporary authors bring to life the history and culture of their societies, offering a unique female perspective that enriches the broader landscape of Indian English literature. Their works shed light on the lived experiences, struggles, and aspirations of women in the North-East, contributing valuable insights into the region's diverse identities and challenges.

F. Identity and Empowerment: Feminism, traditionally rooted in Western thought, advocates for women's equality across economic, social, and political realms. Yet, the question arises: do the concepts of Western Feminism or even mainstream Indian Feminism truly reflect the experiences of women from the North-East? There’s a common perception that women in this region enjoy equal standing with men due to the lack of rigid caste or class structures. However, understanding the experiences of women here isn't about fitting them into established feminist frameworks; it's about expanding our perspective to recognize the various forms of exploitation, marginalization, and inequality that women face, irrespective of their location. Nevertheless, location is crucial in understanding how gender roles and meanings differ across social, political, and geographical landscapes. This underscores the need for a more nuanced, culturally specific approach to understanding the status of women in the North-East. The North-Eastern states—Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura—are often grouped together, which overlooks the region’s rich diversity. With the highest concentration of tribal populations, each state houses multiple tribal groups living in close proximity. This oversimplification ignores the unique characteristics of each state. As Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak notes, even when colonized nations find their voice, many peripheral voices remain unheard. The North-East often finds itself in this marginalized position, pushed to the periphery and neglected. This raises an important question: where do we place the women of the North-East? Women are often doubly marginalized—first by gender, and then by patriarchal structures. But how do we address the experiences of women who are already part of marginalized communities? In her book ‘Women's Agency and Social Change’, Meeta Deka references Kathy Davis's definition of gender, which categorizes men and women into binaries. These societal constructs create complex hierarchies of dominance and subordination, intertwining with other factors like race, ethnicity, wealth, age, and religion.

G. Intersectionality: Sex is defined by the biological differences between men and women, whereas gender is a social and cultural construct that dictates how boys and girls are expected to behave and what roles they should play from a young age. As Davis points out, "Gender divisions permeate not only individual's sense of self, families, and intimate relationships, but also structure work, politics, law, education, medicine, the military, religion and culture." This cultural framework creates narratives and myths about men's and women's roles in society, often reinforcing stereotypes that shape societal norms. These stereotypes are evident in stories and narratives that perpetuate the idea of women as either 'angels in the house,' 'fallen women,' or as the source of conflict and suffering. From mythologies to folktales, many stories perpetuate the notion of female inferiority and male superiority, blaming women for major negative events—like Eve’s quest for knowledge being linked to temptation, Helen causing the fall of Troy, or Sita and Surpanakha triggering wars. Davis also highlights that gender, as a system of power, is maintained not just by those in authority but also by the oppressed, as both groups internalize these values in forming their identities. This idea aligns with Gramsci’s concept of hegemony, which suggests that the oppressed often collaborate with the oppressor, contributing to their own exploitation. Women, having been conditioned to accept their subordination as normal, often become equal partners in upholding these power structures. However, it's crucial to recognize that women have continuously resisted these oppressive systems; for every narrative that asserts male dominance, there are also stories of women challenging and fighting against such oppression. From this viewpoint, patriarchy, perpetuated through various mechanisms like the spread of myths, is culturally specific. Its influence varies across different societies, but its presence is pervasive, subtly exerting control everywhere including in North-East India.

H. Final Thoughts: In conclusion, developing a unified framework for understanding women writers in North-East literature is a complex task due to the diversity of perspectives and interpretations each author brings. While the geographical context of the writer is important, the women from this region express their individuality through distinct voices and styles, both in their writing and the subjects they choose to explore. These writers are not confined to addressing women’s issues alone; like their male counterparts, they also engage with broader themes, including those traditionally associated with men. The differences in experiences between men and women are more about perspective than a measure of capability or skill. The debate over whether men and women use language differently has been a subject of theoretical discussion, with concepts like Helen Cixous’ ‘Ecriture Feminine’ or feminine writing being applied to the study of women’s literature. However, limiting the analysis of women’s language to their sexuality could be restrictive, especially when considering the diverse cultural backgrounds of women writers from the North-East. The Western worldview, which often emphasizes physical and material concepts, contrasts with the more holistic and inclusive outlook of indigenous cultures. Therefore, when interpreting native literature, it’s important to approach it without imposing external theoretical frameworks that might not align with the cultural context. Women writers from India’s North-East are emerging as a powerful literary force, addressing regional issues and providing valuable insights into the lives of women in these areas. While the tradition of English literature in this region is still developing, and a distinct tradition of women’s writing is in the making, there is no doubt that these voices will play a crucial role in enriching the broader landscape of Indian literature in English.

Works Cited

Biswas, Debajyoti (2024). Anglophone Literature from Northeast India and Women's Writing. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors (P) Ltd.

Biswas, Gautam, Das Gupta, Subha Chakraborty (2022). Literatures and Oratures as Knowledge Systems: Texts from Northeast India. Akansha Publishing.

Das, Nigamananda (2011). Matrix of Redemption: Contemporary Multi-Ethnic English Literature from North East India. Adhyayan Publisher.

 

Dey, Anup Kumar (2017). The Land of Early Nightfall Glimpses of the Literature of Northeast India. Adhyayan Publishers and Distributors.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/373366601_The_'NEO_Literature'_of_North_East_India (Accessed on 26th September, 2024)

https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2402470.pdf (Accessed on 26th September, 2024)

https://www.journalijar.com/article/44040/ (Accessed on 26th September, 2024)

https://www.academia.edu/49279171/NORTH_EAST_LITERATURE_CULTURAL_PERSPECTIVE (Accessed on 26th September, 2024)

https://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/Vol.27-Issue11/Ser-8/D2711081419.pdf(Accessed on 26th September, 2024)

https://www.questjournals.org/jrhss/papers/vol8-issue4/E08044247.pdf(Accessed on 26th September, 2024)

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362050824_Writing_from_Northeast_A_question_of_marginality(Accessed on 26th September, 2024)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Moth_Eaten_Howdah_of_the_Tusker(Accessed on 26th September, 2024)

Islam, K.M.Baharul (2022). Literatures from Northeast India: Beyond the Centre–Periphery Debate. Routledge India.

Konch, Dr. Karabi (2019).  A Sociological Understanding of North East India. Notion Press.

Pachuau, Margaret.L, Daimari, Anjali (2024). Interpreting Literature from Northeast India. Bloomsbury India.

Pal, Indrajit, Bhatt, Mihir (2002). Emerging Literatures from Northeast India - Single Issue Magazine. SAGE Publications Pvt. Ltd.

Swami, Indu (2010). Exploring Untouched Shades of North-East Indian Literature in English. VDM Verlag,

Zama, Ch Margaret (1900). Emerging Literatures from North-East India: The Dynamics of Culture, Society and Identity (SAGE Studies on India's North East). SAGE India.