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Threads of Survival: Ecofeminism, Patriarchy, and Environmental Crisis in Kamala Markandaya's Nectar in a Sieve - Trilochan Kumbhar

 


THREADS OF SURVIVAL: ECOFEMINISM, PATRIARCHY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS IN KAMALA MARKANDAYA'S NECTAR IN A SIEVE

Trilochan Kumbhar

Lecturer

NSCB Govt. College

Sambalpur, Odisha, India

 

Abstract:

Ecofeminist critical discourse explores the relationship between gender and environmental issues through various literary forms. This study will look at the notion of ecofeminism, which developed in the West, and how it is portrayed in the 1954 novel Nectar in a Sieve by Indian author Kamala Markandaya. This paper examines the issues, characters, and structural narrative components of the book to assess how effectively Markandaya blends women's experiences with the natural world. It will also emphasise how reliant humans are on one another and how their issues mirror the collapse of the natural world. The research study examines the current situation from a feminist ecological standpoint. This article dives deeper into these topics to provide a fuller assessment of the book's critique of patriarchal systems, discussion of environmental difficulties, and advocacy for the emancipation of women and nature. The overall focus of this study is on the importance of recognising and combating society's marginalisation and exploitation of women and the natural world. As a result, a better knowledge of ecofeminism and its role in literary studies is gained. The deterioration of land and the environment has emerged as a significant concern in agrarian and rural South Asian societies, especially among women, who advocate for a greater respect for both women and nature. This paper investigates the intricate and profound connection between women and nature through a critical analysis of selected texts. It also examines Markandaya's portrayal of women and the environment as two distinct yet parallel entities, even within a complex environmental context. Furthermore, it highlights women's efforts to assert their own value while simultaneously recognizing the importance of nature, the environment, and animals.

Keyword: Ecofeminism. Ecocriticism, Indian Writing in English, Environment, Patriarchy

Indian author Kamala Markandaya's remarkable work Nectar in a Sieve highlights the problem of women's relationship with the environment. She explains how male-chauvinistic communities severely devalue and marginalise women. Similar to another subjugated non-human body, the environment has also suffered abuse, devaluation, and degradation due to local male-dominated regimes. The male members of these civilisations attribute all the inferior qualities to women, and because of their innately productive qualities, women and nature are viewed as equal and the same in these villages. The agents of patriarchal dominance so mistreat, undervalue, exploit, and dishonour nature and women. Kamala Markandaya emphasises the inequality, hardship, and situation of women, particularly working-class women, as well as another subjugated entity: the environment. She depicts how a society's women are completely degraded as a result of poverty, women's deep ties to nature, and nature's exploitation by patriarchal rulers and businessmen. The main character, Rukmani, and the surroundings are portrayed by Kamala Markandaya as downtrodden beings. Rukmani's labour in the garden and her complete reliance on this resource demonstrate her enduring connection to the natural world. She finds satisfaction in witnessing the expansion of her field. When she states, "Our freedom to work in the forest and to farm is very important," it becomes evident (Markandaya, K. 2010, p. 241). The reality that female domestic work and reproductive labour are not valued in this rural, male-chauvinistic community is equally significant and unfortunate.

            Nectar in a Sieve's line chronological narrative traces the protagonist's journey of self-discovery, from a twelve-year-old girl to a married lady and finally a mother, each with her own life and many relationships. Her status as a young woman wife and child bride mirrors ecofeminism's assertion that her body and spirituality are closely linked to her connection to the land. Ecofeminism acknowledges the environment and women as two distinct and autonomous entities, which are the oppressed entities. Combining feminism and ecology or environmentalism, it offers a distinctive blend of literary and cultural viewpoints that give literary and cultural critics a particular lens through which to examine how nature is portrayed in literature and connected to representations of sexuality, gender, race, and class (Legler, G. 1997). The term "eco-feminism" refers to a broad range of viewpoints that have their origins in various feminist theories and actions.

The novel's major protagonist, Rukmani, a poor rural woman, recounts her difficult existence and bravery in the face of societal and natural challenges. The protagonist has a link with nature from the beginning of the novel. She developed a greater connection to nature after marrying Nathan, a poor tenant farmer. Her connection to nature is impressive, smart, and thought-provoking. Vandana Shiva argues that masculine progress leads to environmental destruction and threatens the livelihoods of the peasants. This text also takes into account Shiva's other point, which is that peasants—men and women alike—are actually seen as feminine both historically and colonially. The novel Permanent illustrates Rosemary Radford Ruther's theory that a hierarchical social system that permits one group to dominate another is what sustains and legitimises human destruction of nature and the degradation of women. Rukmani's daily tasks and activities appear to be motivated by the environment because of her strong connection to the natural world. When her spouse has passed away and she has left a widow, the young protagonist recalls natural objects that a normal person would never even consider.

Rukmani's intense and abiding passion for nature is depicted in this description; it never stops growing. Most people enjoy the beauty of the dawn scenery when they wake up, but her habit of seeing objects that are the colour of the dawn tells us that she has a greater affinity for nature. She not only observes and enjoys it, but also gives it value by informing the reader of its positive aspects, benefits, and reimbursement."Sleepers awake and him softly departing" is what Rukmani repeats on page 3. These individuals go to sleep with the memory of nature (the arrival of the moon and stars), and they wake up with the same recollection of the arrival of the natural object (the sun, the dawn), as the brief sentence makes clear. Their slumber and waking are thus inextricably linked to the natural world. Research shows Rukmani's profound love and care for the land, the environment, and the people. Notwithstanding the numerous difficulties she faces in both the city and the village, Rukmani creates a delicate bond with nature that no one can break. She has to deal with a number of difficulties at every point, yet she always finds solace in nature's presence.

These disparate viewpoints represent not only various feminist viewpoints but also various interpretations of nature and approaches to urgent environmental issues (Warren, 1993). The four interconnected pillars of patriarchal society, according to ecofeminists, are racism, sexism, class exploitation, and environmental degradation. According to this ecofeminist's analysis, oppressed races and social classes, as well as women, have an intimate relationship with nature. They contend that because of their shared history of being oppressed by male dominance, women and nature have a tight affinity. Additionally, they contend that male-centered actions and speech regarding the environment reflect traditional and usual male-centered approaches. The representation of nature is also a topic of ecofeminism literary criticism, which highlights how conventional representations frequently view the land as feminine, innocent, and ready for exploitation.

This term originated from Francoise d Eabonne's 1974 book Feminismour la Mort (Feminism or Death), which was translated into English in 1989 (Wagner, 2008). Eco-feminism, which connects the environment and women, is a value system, social movement, interdisciplinary approach, and political practice that investigates the relationship between centrism (men as the centre of power and authority) and environmental mistreatment and exploitation (Birkland, 1993). Ecofeminists discuss hierarchical dualism, which assigns prestigious and subtle attributes to men over women. Ecofeminists believe that domination stems from value hierarchy and dualistic thinking, which perpetuates the power and dominance of both women and nature (Warren, 1990). Ecofeminists believe that ideology plays a crucial role in determining the dominance of women and nature. Ecofeminists advocate for equality, non-violence, and non-hierarchical structures, as well as valuing nature and all living things (Kirk, 1997).

Rukmani finds herself at the crossroads of a swiftly transforming India characterised by centralised authority, heightened economic activity, and urban expansion. In contrast to her neighbours, who readily abandon their past to embrace the present, Rukmani experiences profound pain, envying their ability to adapt so effortlessly. The narrative follows Rukmani’s quest to reclaim and restore the aspects of her rural existence that she cherishes most, particularly her sense of community and her bond with the land. Her endeavour to uphold her dignity and exert control over her life illustrates the intricate ways in which rural women in the global South navigate the challenges of modernity. By highlighting Rukmani’s evolution into an active participant in these negotiations, I challenge the conventional interpretation of her as a mere passive peasant woman. This traditional view is particularly misguided when considering the often-overlooked dynamic between Rukmani and Kenny, the white doctor. Through her interactions with Kenny, Rukmani refines her social critique and cultivates her own vision for India’s future. In this analysis, I examine Rukmani’s actions and practices through the lens of de Certeau’s theories on everyday life, positing that her newfound agency exemplifies a form of ‘making do.’ Most significantly, I perceive in Rukmani’s character a chance to reevaluate ecofeminist discourse regarding the connection between rural women in the global South—especially in India—and their environment. As rice farmers, Rukmani and her husband’s relationship with nature is intricately linked to their labour. Through gardening, Rukmani fosters a profound connection with the land, reminiscent of early ecofeminist explorations of the body and spirituality. However, her deep reliance on the land for sustenance also exposes a vulnerability that complicates the idealisation of this relationship.

            To comprehend Rukmani's connection with the land and her surroundings, it is essential to examine the opening of the novel. This is significant because Nectar in a Sieve is structured similarly to another early postcolonial work, Chinua Achebe's "Things Fall Apart," where the gradual rhythm and predictable nature of rural village life are abruptly and irreversibly disrupted by external forces. Rukmani reflects on her early married life, stating: “While the sun shines on you and the fields are green and beautiful to the eye, and your husband sees beauty in you which no one has seen before, and you have a good store of grain laid away for hard times, a roof over you and a sweet stirring in your body, what more can a woman ask for?” (8). The fluidity of her narrative, particularly the connection she makes between the beauty of the fields and the admiration her husband holds for her, conveys a sense of harmony and fulfillment that establishes a foundation for the contrasts that will emerge later. Like Achebe's work, Markandaya's novel documents the initial arrival of white missionaries and officials, with the presence of both religious (Sikhs and Muslims) and racial outsiders being a significant aspect of the narrative. However, rather than focusing on the theme of first contact, Markandaya's story illustrates the onset of large-scale industrialisation that characterised Nehru's postcolonial development policies. Notably, Rukmani adapts to these changes more effectively than Okonkwo.                      

            Susheela Rao identifies Rukmani's profound relationship with nature through her "heightened awareness of nature’s beauty" (42) and her attunement to the seasonal cycles. Rao highlights numerous instances where Rukmani reflects on the aesthetic and atmospheric splendour of her surroundings. Nevertheless, a more in-depth examination of her connection to nature is warranted. Specifically, an analysis of Rukmani’s activities in the garden reveals a tangible link between her physical being and the land, a theme that will be further elucidated in the context of Vandana Shiva’s scholarship. The garden holds significant importance in her life and is intricately tied to her journey of maturation. At such a tender age, having entered into marriage at twelve, Rukmani undergoes her own journey of physical, emotional, sexual, and psychological maturation through her labour in the garden and the cultivation of her vegetables. She reflects, “I was young and fanciful then,” noting that it appeared to her not merely that she and the plants grew simultaneously and unconsciously, but rather that each dry, hard seed she cradled in her hand contained the profound secret of life itself, tightly coiled beneath layer after layer of protective foliage.

There are several noteworthy aspects of this passage. Firstly, the candid and transparent way in which Markandaya portrays Rukmani's enjoyment is significant. The sensuality and implications of sexuality, as evidenced by her blushing and the experience of "pleasure," contribute to the distinctiveness of Nectar in a Sieve for its era. In the novel's introduction, Indira Ganesan reflects on her own encounter with the portrayal of Indian women's sexuality in Markandaya's work, which felt entirely foreign compared to the image of Indianness she was presented with during her upbringing as an Indian-American: “At seventeen, I believed all Indian women to be modest and old-fashioned, like my mother” (vii). Ganesan found Markandaya’s representation of Rukmani’s neighbour, Kunthi, a sex worker, particularly striking. Markandaya candidly addresses the issue of prostitution in her narrative. During a confrontation with Rukmani, Kunthi's sari “slipped from her shoulders. Then [Rukmani] noticed that it was not secured at the waist but rather below the navel, reminiscent of a courtesan’s attire” (60). While Kunthi is portrayed as a deliberate object of desire, Rukmani’s more conventional expression of sexuality may seem simplistic and unremarkable. However, when considered together, these two depictions underscore the significance of female sexuality as a central theme in Markandaya’s work. Any interpretation of the text as a feminist piece or as part of the broader canon of women’s literature must acknowledge this aspect. This consideration is particularly crucial given that, as will be discussed, some critics have hastily categorized Rukmani as a representation of a specific ideal of virtuous Indian womanhood.

The pumpkin scene employs sexual pleasure as a metaphor for the joys of nature; conversely, other sections of the text utilise nature as a metaphor for sexual experiences. In these instances, Rukmani approaches the explicit sexuality exhibited by Kunthi, revealing not only pleasure but also a sense of desire. In the sole depiction of intimacy between Rukmani and Nathan, she reflects on her “senses opening like a flower to his urgency” (57), a portrayal that resonates with the imagery of her plants’ green leaves “unfurling” beneath her own “eager gaze” (13). The use of nature symbolism in this context does not merely normalise sex; rather, it emphasizes the dynamics of pleasure and interconnectedness within relationships. This reversal of metaphors underscores the notion that the fertility of nature is intertwined with Rukmani’s sexual development. This embodiment of nature ultimately serves as a vital force that binds her to her land and shapes her dedication to it as the narrative progresses. The early ecofeminist writings often emphasised the significance of women's spirituality. A primary motivation behind these texts was to eliminate the entrenched patriarchal dichotomies in Western thought that perpetuated the subjugation of both women and the natural world. This subjugation stemmed from historical associations that linked women to nature, thereby positioning them as inferior to men, as noted by scholars such as Karen J. Warren and Susan Griffin.

Several challenges emerge when one seeks to analyse Nectar in a Sieve through the lens of ecofeminism. To begin with, the novel was published at least twenty years prior to the formal establishment of ecofeminism as both an academic discipline and a social movement. Additionally, ecofeminism, particularly its spiritual dimensions, has faced significant and ongoing criticism since its early days. A notable aspect of this critique is the assertion that white Western feminist scholars have created detrimental romanticised narratives. Stereotypes surrounding women from the global South in their pursuit of ecological role models are noteworthy. Noel Sturgeon illustrates this by highlighting the Chipko movement, which has become a focal point in discussions about women in the Third World, often portraying them as "natural environmentalists" or "ultimate ecofeminists." This perspective tends to simplify their identities to that of an idealized peasant woman, who is perceived as being inherently connected to nature through her everyday activities. Consequently, I have approached my analysis of Rukmani with a degree of skepticism, recognizing the necessity of situating her dedication to the land within broader socio-political and interpersonal contexts. The substantial critique directed at ecofeminism has prompted the field to engage in numerous cycles of self-examination, and it remains a vital "strategic discourse," as Sturgeon describes, in the ongoing dialogues surrounding feminism, environmentalism, and social transformation.

 

One of the primary concerns of Shiva is the impact of what she terms maldevelopment on rural peasants, particularly women. In her work Staying Alive, she articulates a distinctly critical perspective on the influence of Western science and technology on natural processes, a viewpoint that resonates with the ideas of another notable ecofeminist, Carolyn Merchant, in her book The Death of Nature. In opposition to this detrimental Western scientific paradigm, which seeks understanding through fragmentation and simplification, Shiva promotes a holistic perspective that acknowledges nature as a creative force. For her, this creative force embodies a feminine essence, rooted in the Hindu concept of Prakriti, or life force. Shiva perceives the potential for ecological stewardship in the everyday actions of women like Rukmani. Consequently, one might interpret this novel as a straightforward reflection of Shiva’s assertions regarding the capacity of rural women in the global South to serve as guardians of the land. However, as numerous critics have noted, this portrayal may itself be reductionist and essentialist. Niamh Moore argues that Shiva has become what Sturgeon refers to as ecofeminism’s “straw woman” for critiques concerning the woman-nature relationship. In her endeavour to articulate anti-racist ecofeminism, Noel Sturgeon highlights that in their quest to address the perceived disconnection of the West from nature, ecofeminists have inappropriately appropriated the identities of non-Western women, including Indigenous women, historical pre-patriarchal European women, and particularly, Indian women.

There remains a significant amount that can be gleaned from Shiva’s depiction of Indian women farmers and peasants. Notably, in the context of Rukmani’s connection to the land, Shiva’s focus on labor is particularly insightful. She asserts that “women and nature are associated not in passivity but in creativity and in the maintenance of life” (47, emphasis in the original). This statement may be interpreted as an essentialist view regarding women’s reproductive roles. However, when considered alongside Shiva’s interviews with women engaged in work within the Himalayan forests, it becomes evident that the concept of “active maintenance of life” is central to their experiences. In the interviews conducted, it becomes evident that the women perceive freedom as the capacity to engage in work (in a relatively unalienated manner), rather than as liberation from work itself. One participant articulates that the three most significant aspects of life are “freedom and forests and food” (249). She emphasizes that “Our freedom to work in the forests and to farm is very important” (249). Another woman asserts that their strength, referred to as shakti, “emanates from these forests and grasslands; we observe their growth year after year, drawing our strength from their inherent vitality. … We consume food from our own fields. This not only nourishes our bodies but also provides us with moral fortitude, affirming that we are our own masters, capable of controlling and producing our own wealth. Our power is intertwined with nature’s power” (250). These statements reflect the type of creative, productive, and non-alienating labour that Marx regarded as essential for the realization of full humanity. Hooks has termed this “humanizing labour” (133). It is this dedication to a specific form of rural labour and the belief in its intrinsic value that inspired the women to advocate for the forests against deforestation. I contend that this same dedication influences Rukmani. Her fulfillment and joy derived from nature are not characterized by leisure or recreation, as William Cronon suggests is more common in Western/North American environmentalism (78), but rather through labour and production. Rukmani articulates the connection between work and fulfillment: “The sowing of seed disciplines the body and the sprouting of the seed uplifts the spirit, but there is nothing to equal the rich satisfaction of a gathered harvest when the grain is set before you in shining mounds and your hands are whitened with the dust of good rice” (102). It is apparent that her understanding of labour is becoming outdated as her sons orchestrate a strike at the tannery where they are employed.

What stands out most in Markandaya’s novel, when examined through a postcolonial ecocritical lens, is the manner in which her narrative initially presents and subsequently challenges the concept of the pastoral. The portrayal of the farm, for instance, conjures images of an untouched, fertile, rural landscape that exists in harmony with, and yearns for, its more idyllic past—elements that Lawrence Buell associates with pastoral literature. Conversely, the narrative does not shy away from depicting the harsh realities of rural existence. A vivid account of the storm-damaged farm contradicts the notion of the countryside as a sanctuary: “Uprooted trees sprawled their branches in ghastly fashion over streets and houses, flattening them and the bodies of men and women indiscriminately” (41). This interplay between pastoral ideals and anti-pastoral realities is, as noted by Graham Huggan and Helen Tiffin, a prevalent motif in postcolonial literature. In their work, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, they explore the intricacies of the postcolonial pastoral, asserting that it “affords a useful opportunity to open up the tension between ownership and belonging in a variety of colonial and postcolonial contexts: contexts marked, for the most part, by a direct or indirect engagement with often devastating experiences of dispossession and loss” (85). Markandaya’s narrative directly addresses this theme of loss through the land appropriation tactics employed by the tannery.

 

Conclusion

Revisiting ecofeminism through a seminal postcolonial text reveals several insights. Firstly, while Rukmani may seem to represent a straightforward ecofeminist perspective defined by Western ideals, she is, in reality, a multifaceted character with a nuanced connection to an unidealized nature. The task, therefore, is to look beyond the superficial dismissal of this stereotype and genuinely recognize her bond with the land. In departing from the garden to concentrate on her relationship with Kenny, another dimension of Rukmani's character emerges. Her capacity to advocate for herself and the Indian populace, particularly in response to Kenny's pessimism, served as a significant complement to her practical experiences on the farm and in the garden. Therefore, her ultimate return to the local community should be interpreted as a deliberate and affirmative decision rather than a mere retreat to the perceived safety of her village. The novel, in this context, prioritises a notion of transformation that highlights recovery rather than a straightforward advancement. Rukmani’s experience exemplifies the ability to adapt amidst industrial, social, political, and economic shifts. Her choice to return to the land, along with her aspiration to share that existence with her loved ones, represents her reaction to these evolving circumstances.

Work Cited

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Adams, Carol J., and Josephine Donovan, editors. Animals and Women: Feminist Theoretical Explorations. Duke University Press, 1995.

Agarwal, Bina. “The Gender and Environment Debate: Lessons from India.” Feminist Studies, vol. 18, no. 1, 1992, pp. 119–158.

Buchanan, Ian. “Extraordinary Spaces in Ordinary Places: De Certeau and the Space of Postcolonialism.” Journal of the South Pacific Association for Commonwealth Language and Literature Studies, vol. 36, 1993, pp. 1–18.

Buell, Lawrence. The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1995.

Colebrook, Claire. “Certeau and Foucault: Tactics and Strategic Essentialism.” The South Atlantic Quarterly, vol. 100, no. 2, 2001, pp. 543–574.

Kirk, Gwyn. “Eco-Feminism and Environmental Justice: Bridges across Gender, Race, and Class.” A Journal of Women Studies, vol. 18, no. 2, 1997, University of Nebraska Press, pp. 2–10

Markandaya, Kamala. Nectar in a Sieve. Reprint ed., Penguin Books, 1954.