THREADS OF SURVIVAL: ECOFEMINISM, PATRIARCHY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS IN KAMALA MARKANDAYA'S NECTAR IN A SIEVE
Trilochan Kumbhar
Lecturer
NSCB Govt. College
Sambalpur, Odisha,
India
Abstract:
Ecofeminist
critical discourse explores the relationship between gender and environmental
issues through various literary forms. This study will look at the notion of
ecofeminism, which developed in the West, and how it is portrayed in the 1954
novel Nectar in a Sieve by
Indian author Kamala Markandaya. This paper examines the issues, characters,
and structural narrative components of the book to assess how effectively
Markandaya blends women's experiences with the natural world. It will also
emphasise how reliant humans are on one another and how their issues mirror the
collapse of the natural world. The research study examines the current
situation from a feminist ecological standpoint. This article dives deeper into
these topics to provide a fuller assessment of the book's critique of
patriarchal systems, discussion of environmental difficulties, and advocacy for
the emancipation of women and nature. The overall focus of this study is on the
importance of recognising and combating society's marginalisation and
exploitation of women and the natural world. As a result, a better knowledge of
ecofeminism and its role in literary studies is gained. The deterioration of
land and the environment has emerged as a significant concern in agrarian and
rural South Asian societies, especially among women, who advocate for a greater
respect for both women and nature. This paper investigates the intricate and
profound connection between women and nature through a critical analysis of
selected texts. It also examines Markandaya's portrayal of women and the
environment as two distinct yet parallel entities, even within a complex
environmental context. Furthermore, it highlights women's efforts to assert
their own value while simultaneously recognizing the importance of nature, the
environment, and animals.
Keyword:
Ecofeminism. Ecocriticism, Indian
Writing in English, Environment, Patriarchy
Indian author Kamala
Markandaya's remarkable work Nectar in a
Sieve highlights the problem of women's relationship with the environment.
She explains how male-chauvinistic communities severely devalue and marginalise
women. Similar to another subjugated non-human body, the environment has also
suffered abuse, devaluation, and degradation due to local male-dominated
regimes. The male members of these civilisations attribute all the inferior
qualities to women, and because of their innately productive qualities, women
and nature are viewed as equal and the same in these villages. The agents of
patriarchal dominance so mistreat, undervalue, exploit, and dishonour nature
and women. Kamala Markandaya emphasises the inequality, hardship, and situation
of women, particularly working-class women, as well as another subjugated entity:
the environment. She depicts how a society's women are completely degraded as a
result of poverty, women's deep ties to nature, and nature's exploitation by
patriarchal rulers and businessmen. The main character, Rukmani, and the
surroundings are portrayed by Kamala Markandaya as downtrodden beings.
Rukmani's labour in the garden and her complete reliance on this resource
demonstrate her enduring connection to the natural world. She finds
satisfaction in witnessing the expansion of her field. When she states,
"Our freedom to work in the forest and to farm is very important," it
becomes evident (Markandaya, K. 2010, p. 241). The reality that female domestic
work and reproductive labour are not valued in this rural, male-chauvinistic
community is equally significant and unfortunate.
Nectar in a Sieve's
line chronological narrative traces the protagonist's journey of
self-discovery, from a twelve-year-old girl to a married lady and finally a
mother, each with her own life and many relationships. Her status as a young
woman wife and child bride mirrors ecofeminism's assertion that her body and
spirituality are closely linked to her connection to the land. Ecofeminism
acknowledges the environment and women as two distinct and autonomous entities,
which are the oppressed entities. Combining feminism and ecology or
environmentalism, it offers a distinctive blend of literary and cultural
viewpoints that give literary and cultural critics a particular lens through
which to examine how nature is portrayed in literature and connected to
representations of sexuality, gender, race, and class (Legler, G. 1997). The
term "eco-feminism" refers to a broad range of viewpoints that have
their origins in various feminist theories and actions.
The
novel's major protagonist, Rukmani, a poor rural woman, recounts her difficult
existence and bravery in the face of societal and natural challenges. The
protagonist has a link with nature from the beginning of the novel. She
developed a greater connection to nature after marrying Nathan, a poor tenant
farmer. Her connection to nature is impressive, smart, and thought-provoking.
Vandana Shiva argues that masculine progress leads to environmental destruction
and threatens the livelihoods of the peasants. This text also takes into
account Shiva's other point, which is that peasants—men and women alike—are
actually seen as feminine both historically and colonially. The novel Permanent
illustrates Rosemary Radford Ruther's theory that a hierarchical social system
that permits one group to dominate another is what sustains and legitimises
human destruction of nature and the degradation of women. Rukmani's daily tasks
and activities appear to be motivated by the environment because of her strong
connection to the natural world. When her spouse has passed away and she has
left a widow, the young protagonist recalls natural objects that a normal
person would never even consider.
Rukmani's
intense and abiding passion for nature is depicted in this description; it
never stops growing. Most people enjoy the beauty of the dawn scenery when they
wake up, but her habit of seeing objects that are the colour of the dawn tells
us that she has a greater affinity for nature. She not only observes and enjoys
it, but also gives it value by informing the reader of its positive aspects,
benefits, and reimbursement."Sleepers awake and him softly departing"
is what Rukmani repeats on page 3. These individuals go to sleep with the
memory of nature (the arrival of the moon and stars), and they wake up with the
same recollection of the arrival of the natural object (the sun, the dawn), as
the brief sentence makes clear. Their slumber and waking are thus inextricably
linked to the natural world. Research shows Rukmani's profound love and care
for the land, the environment, and the people. Notwithstanding the numerous
difficulties she faces in both the city and the village, Rukmani creates a
delicate bond with nature that no one can break. She has to deal with a number
of difficulties at every point, yet she always finds solace in nature's
presence.
These
disparate viewpoints represent not only various feminist viewpoints but also
various interpretations of nature and approaches to urgent environmental issues
(Warren, 1993). The four interconnected pillars of patriarchal society,
according to ecofeminists, are racism, sexism, class exploitation, and
environmental degradation. According to this ecofeminist's analysis, oppressed
races and social classes, as well as women, have an intimate relationship with
nature. They contend that because of their shared history of being oppressed by
male dominance, women and nature have a tight affinity. Additionally, they
contend that male-centered actions and speech regarding the environment reflect
traditional and usual male-centered approaches. The representation of nature is
also a topic of ecofeminism literary criticism, which highlights how
conventional representations frequently view the land as feminine, innocent,
and ready for exploitation.
This
term originated from Francoise d Eabonne's 1974 book Feminismour la Mort
(Feminism or Death), which was translated into English in 1989 (Wagner, 2008).
Eco-feminism, which connects the environment and women, is a value system,
social movement, interdisciplinary approach, and political practice that
investigates the relationship between centrism (men as the centre of power and
authority) and environmental mistreatment and exploitation (Birkland, 1993).
Ecofeminists discuss hierarchical dualism, which assigns prestigious and subtle
attributes to men over women. Ecofeminists believe that domination stems from
value hierarchy and dualistic thinking, which perpetuates the power and
dominance of both women and nature (Warren, 1990). Ecofeminists believe that
ideology plays a crucial role in determining the dominance of women and nature.
Ecofeminists advocate for equality, non-violence, and non-hierarchical
structures, as well as valuing nature and all living things (Kirk, 1997).
Rukmani
finds herself at the crossroads of a swiftly transforming India characterised
by centralised authority, heightened economic activity, and urban expansion. In
contrast to her neighbours, who readily abandon their past to embrace the
present, Rukmani experiences profound pain, envying their ability to adapt so
effortlessly. The narrative follows Rukmani’s quest to reclaim and restore the
aspects of her rural existence that she cherishes most, particularly her sense
of community and her bond with the land. Her endeavour to uphold her dignity
and exert control over her life illustrates the intricate ways in which rural
women in the global South navigate the challenges of modernity. By highlighting
Rukmani’s evolution into an active participant in these negotiations, I
challenge the conventional interpretation of her as a mere passive peasant
woman. This traditional view is particularly misguided when considering the
often-overlooked dynamic between Rukmani and Kenny, the white doctor. Through
her interactions with Kenny, Rukmani refines her social critique and cultivates
her own vision for India’s future. In this analysis, I examine Rukmani’s
actions and practices through the lens of de Certeau’s theories on everyday
life, positing that her newfound agency exemplifies a form of ‘making do.’ Most
significantly, I perceive in Rukmani’s character a chance to reevaluate
ecofeminist discourse regarding the connection between rural women in the
global South—especially in India—and their environment. As rice farmers,
Rukmani and her husband’s relationship with nature is intricately linked to
their labour. Through gardening, Rukmani fosters a profound connection with the
land, reminiscent of early ecofeminist explorations of the body and
spirituality. However, her deep reliance on the land for sustenance also
exposes a vulnerability that complicates the idealisation of this relationship.
To comprehend Rukmani's connection with the land and her
surroundings, it is essential to examine the opening of the novel. This is
significant because Nectar in a Sieve
is structured similarly to another early postcolonial work, Chinua Achebe's
"Things Fall Apart," where the gradual rhythm and predictable nature
of rural village life are abruptly and irreversibly disrupted by external
forces. Rukmani reflects on her early married life, stating: “While the sun
shines on you and the fields are green and beautiful to the eye, and your
husband sees beauty in you which no one has seen before, and you have a good
store of grain laid away for hard times, a roof over you and a sweet stirring
in your body, what more can a woman ask for?” (8). The fluidity of her
narrative, particularly the connection she makes between the beauty of the
fields and the admiration her husband holds for her, conveys a sense of harmony
and fulfillment that establishes a foundation for the contrasts that will
emerge later. Like Achebe's work, Markandaya's novel documents the initial
arrival of white missionaries and officials, with the presence of both
religious (Sikhs and Muslims) and racial outsiders being a significant aspect
of the narrative. However, rather than focusing on the theme of first contact,
Markandaya's story illustrates the onset of large-scale industrialisation that
characterised Nehru's postcolonial development policies. Notably, Rukmani
adapts to these changes more effectively than Okonkwo.
Susheela Rao identifies Rukmani's profound relationship
with nature through her "heightened awareness of nature’s beauty"
(42) and her attunement to the seasonal cycles. Rao highlights numerous
instances where Rukmani reflects on the aesthetic and atmospheric splendour of
her surroundings. Nevertheless, a more in-depth examination of her connection
to nature is warranted. Specifically, an analysis of Rukmani’s activities in
the garden reveals a tangible link between her physical being and the land, a
theme that will be further elucidated in the context of Vandana Shiva’s
scholarship. The garden holds significant importance in her life and is
intricately tied to her journey of maturation. At such a tender age, having
entered into marriage at twelve, Rukmani undergoes her own journey of physical,
emotional, sexual, and psychological maturation through her labour in the
garden and the cultivation of her vegetables. She reflects, “I was young and
fanciful then,” noting that it appeared to her not merely that she and the
plants grew simultaneously and unconsciously, but rather that each dry, hard
seed she cradled in her hand contained the profound secret of life itself,
tightly coiled beneath layer after layer of protective foliage.
There
are several noteworthy aspects of this passage. Firstly, the candid and
transparent way in which Markandaya portrays Rukmani's enjoyment is
significant. The sensuality and implications of sexuality, as evidenced by her
blushing and the experience of "pleasure," contribute to the
distinctiveness of Nectar in a Sieve for its era. In the novel's introduction,
Indira Ganesan reflects on her own encounter with the portrayal of Indian
women's sexuality in Markandaya's work, which felt entirely foreign compared to
the image of Indianness she was presented with during her upbringing as an
Indian-American: “At seventeen, I believed all Indian women to be modest and
old-fashioned, like my mother” (vii). Ganesan found Markandaya’s representation
of Rukmani’s neighbour, Kunthi, a sex worker, particularly striking. Markandaya
candidly addresses the issue of prostitution in her narrative. During a
confrontation with Rukmani, Kunthi's sari “slipped from her shoulders. Then
[Rukmani] noticed that it was not secured at the waist but rather below the
navel, reminiscent of a courtesan’s attire” (60). While Kunthi is portrayed as
a deliberate object of desire, Rukmani’s more conventional expression of
sexuality may seem simplistic and unremarkable. However, when considered
together, these two depictions underscore the significance of female sexuality
as a central theme in Markandaya’s work. Any interpretation of the text as a
feminist piece or as part of the broader canon of women’s literature must
acknowledge this aspect. This consideration is particularly crucial given that,
as will be discussed, some critics have hastily categorized Rukmani as a
representation of a specific ideal of virtuous Indian womanhood.
The
pumpkin scene employs sexual pleasure as a metaphor for the joys of nature;
conversely, other sections of the text utilise nature as a metaphor for sexual
experiences. In these instances, Rukmani approaches the explicit sexuality
exhibited by Kunthi, revealing not only pleasure but also a sense of desire. In
the sole depiction of intimacy between Rukmani and Nathan, she reflects on her
“senses opening like a flower to his urgency” (57), a portrayal that resonates
with the imagery of her plants’ green leaves “unfurling” beneath her own “eager
gaze” (13). The use of nature symbolism in this context does not merely
normalise sex; rather, it emphasizes the dynamics of pleasure and
interconnectedness within relationships. This reversal of metaphors underscores
the notion that the fertility of nature is intertwined with Rukmani’s sexual
development. This embodiment of nature ultimately serves as a vital force that
binds her to her land and shapes her dedication to it as the narrative
progresses. The early ecofeminist writings often emphasised the significance of
women's spirituality. A primary motivation behind these texts was to eliminate
the entrenched patriarchal dichotomies in Western thought that perpetuated the
subjugation of both women and the natural world. This subjugation stemmed from
historical associations that linked women to nature, thereby positioning them
as inferior to men, as noted by scholars such as Karen J. Warren and Susan
Griffin.
Several
challenges emerge when one seeks to analyse Nectar in a Sieve through the lens
of ecofeminism. To begin with, the novel was published at least twenty years
prior to the formal establishment of ecofeminism as both an academic discipline
and a social movement. Additionally, ecofeminism, particularly its spiritual
dimensions, has faced significant and ongoing criticism since its early days. A
notable aspect of this critique is the assertion that white Western feminist
scholars have created detrimental romanticised narratives. Stereotypes
surrounding women from the global South in their pursuit of ecological role
models are noteworthy. Noel Sturgeon illustrates this by highlighting the
Chipko movement, which has become a focal point in discussions about women in
the Third World, often portraying them as "natural environmentalists"
or "ultimate ecofeminists." This perspective tends to simplify their
identities to that of an idealized peasant woman, who is perceived as being
inherently connected to nature through her everyday activities. Consequently, I
have approached my analysis of Rukmani with a degree of skepticism, recognizing
the necessity of situating her dedication to the land within broader
socio-political and interpersonal contexts. The substantial critique directed
at ecofeminism has prompted the field to engage in numerous cycles of
self-examination, and it remains a vital "strategic discourse," as
Sturgeon describes, in the ongoing dialogues surrounding feminism,
environmentalism, and social transformation.
One
of the primary concerns of Shiva is the impact of what she terms maldevelopment
on rural peasants, particularly women. In her work Staying Alive, she
articulates a distinctly critical perspective on the influence of Western
science and technology on natural processes, a viewpoint that resonates with
the ideas of another notable ecofeminist, Carolyn Merchant, in her book The
Death of Nature. In opposition to this detrimental Western scientific paradigm,
which seeks understanding through fragmentation and simplification, Shiva
promotes a holistic perspective that acknowledges nature as a creative force.
For her, this creative force embodies a feminine essence, rooted in the Hindu
concept of Prakriti, or life force. Shiva perceives the potential for
ecological stewardship in the everyday actions of women like Rukmani.
Consequently, one might interpret this novel as a straightforward reflection of
Shiva’s assertions regarding the capacity of rural women in the global South to
serve as guardians of the land. However, as numerous critics have noted, this
portrayal may itself be reductionist and essentialist. Niamh Moore argues that
Shiva has become what Sturgeon refers to as ecofeminism’s “straw woman” for
critiques concerning the woman-nature relationship. In her endeavour to
articulate anti-racist ecofeminism, Noel Sturgeon highlights that in their
quest to address the perceived disconnection of the West from nature,
ecofeminists have inappropriately appropriated the identities of non-Western women,
including Indigenous women, historical pre-patriarchal European women, and
particularly, Indian women.
There
remains a significant amount that can be gleaned from Shiva’s depiction of
Indian women farmers and peasants. Notably, in the context of Rukmani’s
connection to the land, Shiva’s focus on labor is particularly insightful. She
asserts that “women and nature are associated not in passivity but in
creativity and in the maintenance of life” (47, emphasis in the original). This
statement may be interpreted as an essentialist view regarding women’s
reproductive roles. However, when considered alongside Shiva’s interviews with
women engaged in work within the Himalayan forests, it becomes evident that the
concept of “active maintenance of life” is central to their experiences. In the
interviews conducted, it becomes evident that the women perceive freedom as the
capacity to engage in work (in a relatively unalienated manner), rather than as
liberation from work itself. One participant articulates that the three most
significant aspects of life are “freedom and forests and food” (249). She
emphasizes that “Our freedom to work in the forests and to farm is very
important” (249). Another woman asserts that their strength, referred to as
shakti, “emanates from these forests and grasslands; we observe their growth
year after year, drawing our strength from their inherent vitality. … We
consume food from our own fields. This not only nourishes our bodies but also
provides us with moral fortitude, affirming that we are our own masters,
capable of controlling and producing our own wealth. Our power is intertwined
with nature’s power” (250). These statements reflect the type of creative,
productive, and non-alienating labour that Marx regarded as essential for the realization
of full humanity. Hooks has termed this “humanizing labour” (133). It is this
dedication to a specific form of rural labour and the belief in its intrinsic
value that inspired the women to advocate for the forests against
deforestation. I contend that this same dedication influences Rukmani. Her fulfillment
and joy derived from nature are not characterized by leisure or recreation, as
William Cronon suggests is more common in Western/North American
environmentalism (78), but rather through labour and production. Rukmani
articulates the connection between work and fulfillment: “The sowing of seed
disciplines the body and the sprouting of the seed uplifts the spirit, but
there is nothing to equal the rich satisfaction of a gathered harvest when the
grain is set before you in shining mounds and your hands are whitened with the
dust of good rice” (102). It is apparent that her understanding of labour is
becoming outdated as her sons orchestrate a strike at the tannery where they
are employed.
What
stands out most in Markandaya’s novel, when examined through a postcolonial
ecocritical lens, is the manner in which her narrative initially presents and
subsequently challenges the concept of the pastoral. The portrayal of the farm,
for instance, conjures images of an untouched, fertile, rural landscape that
exists in harmony with, and yearns for, its more idyllic past—elements that
Lawrence Buell associates with pastoral literature. Conversely, the narrative
does not shy away from depicting the harsh realities of rural existence. A
vivid account of the storm-damaged farm contradicts the notion of the
countryside as a sanctuary: “Uprooted trees sprawled their branches in ghastly
fashion over streets and houses, flattening them and the bodies of men and
women indiscriminately” (41). This interplay between pastoral ideals and
anti-pastoral realities is, as noted by Graham Huggan and Helen Tiffin, a
prevalent motif in postcolonial literature. In their work, Postcolonial
Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, they explore the intricacies of
the postcolonial pastoral, asserting that it “affords a useful opportunity to
open up the tension between ownership and belonging in a variety of colonial
and postcolonial contexts: contexts marked, for the most part, by a direct or
indirect engagement with often devastating experiences of dispossession and
loss” (85). Markandaya’s narrative directly addresses this theme of loss
through the land appropriation tactics employed by the tannery.
Conclusion
Revisiting ecofeminism
through a seminal postcolonial text reveals several insights. Firstly, while
Rukmani may seem to represent a straightforward ecofeminist perspective defined
by Western ideals, she is, in reality, a multifaceted character with a nuanced
connection to an unidealized nature. The task, therefore, is to look beyond the
superficial dismissal of this stereotype and genuinely recognize her bond with
the land. In departing from the garden to concentrate on her relationship with
Kenny, another dimension of Rukmani's character emerges. Her capacity to
advocate for herself and the Indian populace, particularly in response to
Kenny's pessimism, served as a significant complement to her practical
experiences on the farm and in the garden. Therefore, her ultimate return to
the local community should be interpreted as a deliberate and affirmative
decision rather than a mere retreat to the perceived safety of her village. The
novel, in this context, prioritises a notion of transformation that highlights
recovery rather than a straightforward advancement. Rukmani’s experience
exemplifies the ability to adapt amidst industrial, social, political, and
economic shifts. Her choice to return to the land, along with her aspiration to
share that existence with her loved ones, represents her reaction to these
evolving circumstances.
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