Cyclones in Bengal: A Historical Timeline of Storm
Patterns and the Evolution of Human Response
Soutan Rudra,
State Aided College Teacher (SACT),
Department of History,
Burdwan Raj College,
West Bengal, India.
Abstract: When a natural/man-made condition creates an
abnormal, unbearable environment, it is called a disaster. Disasters can be of
two types, such as natural disasters and man-made disasters. Disasters that
occur naturally and in which there is no human participation are called natural
disasters. Natural disasters cause widespread loss of life and property. For
example, floods, cyclones, monsoon storms, tidal waves, tornadoes, droughts,
earthquakes, landslides, river erosion, volcanic eruptions, cold waves, etc.
Disasters that occur due to human negligence, mistakes or intent are called
man-made disasters. For example, wars, civil wars, riots, famines, epidemics,
chemical or nuclear explosions, population explosions, environmental pollution
(air pollution, water pollution, etc.), fires, road accidents, etc.
Most disasters
occur suddenly and unexpectedly, resulting in extensive damage to livelihoods
and socio-economic infrastructure. This is undeniable, especially in the case
of natural disasters. Bangladesh is one of the countries in the world most
prone to natural disasters. In our country, floods, cyclones, Kalbaisakhi,
tornadoes, droughts and earthquakes are the most common. These natural
disasters can cause severe damage to human homes, crops, livestock,
transportation systems, electricity and telecommunications, water and food
supplies, and sewage systems. Above all, the health of the affected population
is subject to immediate and far-reaching suffering. Among these are injuries,
death, diseases, and disability Those who survive a disaster experience
emotional distress - grief over the loss of loved ones, loss of homes and
belongings (Disaster Syndrome). Worry about injured or sick relatives, and a
crisis of food, water, safety, and shelter.
Among the natural
disasters, floods have emerged as an annual disaster in Bengal In addition, the
coastal districts identified as vulnerable areas to sea waves and cyclones.
Other parts of the country are also at risk of floods, monsoon storms,
tornadoes and earthquakes. Recent history shows that floods, cyclones and
tornadoes (1987, 1988, 1991, 1998, 2000) have repeatedly hampered our
socio-economic development and caused massive destruction of life and property.
Even if we consider
it from the health risk perspective, it is clear how much these natural
disasters can disrupt public health. Due to floods, water-borne diseases
(diarrhea, typhoid, jaundice), skin diseases, ARI, measles, eye infections,
etc. usually occur in our country. Apart from this, the incidence of drowning
and snakebite also increases during floods. Tornadoes usually occur suddenly
and with great speed over land, and can cause physical injuries, injuries,
wounds, and even death to many people at once. Physical injuries, injuries, and
disappearances and deaths in the wake of the fire, and subsequent outbreaks of
water-borne diseases and other infectious diseases, occur. Bengal's coastal and
deltaic region-especially Sundarbans, South 24 Parganas, North 24 Parganas,
Midnapore, Hooghly, Howrah, Kolkata, and the coastal belt of Odisha-Bengal-has
historically been one of the most cyclone-prone zones of the Bay of Bengal. The
unique geography of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta, the vast mangrove
forest of the Sundarbans, and the shallow coastal waters have made this area
highly vulnerable to severe storms and tidal surges. Historical records from
the 1737 Great Calcutta Cyclone, the 1864 Calcutta Cyclone, the 1942 Midnapore
Cyclone, and modern disasters like Aila (2009), Bulbul (2019), Amphan (2020),
and Yaas (2021) show a continuous timeline of destructive cyclonic events. Over
time, human responses in these regions-ranging from traditional community
coping in the Sundarbans to modern embankment systems, cyclone shelters, and
early-warning technology-have evolved significantly how society understands and
facis recurring natural threat.
Bengal's
geographical location along the Bay of cyclone-prone regions in the world. For
centuries, powerful storms, tidal surges, and heavy rainfall have shaped the
land, rivers, ecology, and human life of this region. From early historical
records to modern scientific data, Bengal's cyclones reveal a clear timeline of
changing storm patterns influenced by climate, oceanic conditions, and seasonal
winds. At the same time, human responses to these disasters have evolved-from
traditional community coping practices and colonial-era relief measures to
modern early-warning systems, embankments, and disaster-management policies.
Understanding this historical timeline helps us see how both nature and society
have continuously interacted, adapted, and survived within a landscape shaped
by recurring cyclones.
Keyword: Bay of Bengal, cyclogenesis; Landfall, Historical
Timeline, Climate Change. Human Response, Cyclone Shelters
Introduction:
Bengal's coastal region-covering Sundarbans, South 24 Parganas, North 24
Parganas, East Midnapore, Hooghly, and Kolkata-has historically been one of the
most cyclone-prone areas in South Asia. Positioned along the warm waters of the
Bay of Bengal, the region experiences frequent tropical cyclones generated by
low-pressure formations that strengthen over the sea. The unique deltaic
environment of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin, its shallow coastline, and
funnel-shaped geography amplify storm surges and intensify destruction.
Historical records, from the 1737 Great Calcutta Cyclone to the modern
disasters such as Aila (2009), Amphan (2020), and Yaas (2021), reveal a long
timeline of recurring devastation. Human responses-shaped by indigenous
knowledge, colonial administration, post-independence development, and modern
disaster management-have gradually evolved with technological progress.1
The Bay of Bengal is responsible for nearly 80% of
India's severe cyclonic storms, making Bengal extremely vulnerable. Warm ocean
temperatures (above 26°C), high humidity, and strong convection currents create
favorable conditions for cyclone formation. The funnel-shaped northern bay
pushes tidal waves upward, resulting in devastating storm surges in coastal
Bengal districts. The Sundarbans mangrove forest historically acted as a
natural buffer, absorbing wind speed and tidal force. However, colonial-era
deforestation, embankment-building, and population expansion weakened this
protective cover.2
The Bay of Bengal (BoB) basin in the North Indian Ocean
reports the highest number of tropical cyclones, and the frequency is much
higher almost five times compared with the Arabian Sea (AS). Semi-enclosed
nature of this basin in conjunction with its funnel shape steers the cyclone
pathway striking the land. Historical reports signify that most deadly cyclones
with highest catastrophe and death tolls occurred in this basin. The four
maritime states located in the east coast of India are highly vulnerable to
tropical cyclones. Hence, there is a need to understand the risk factors
attributed from extreme winds, storm surge, and associated coastal inundation.
Historical data signify higher frequency of post-monsoon cyclones compared with
pre-monsoon cyclones in the BoB.
This study aims to develop a synthetic track or the most
probable cyclone track for each state located along the east coast of India.
The synthetic track is a general guidance for numerical models, with utility to
evaluate and assess the risk factors along coastal belts. This study also deals
with aspects on frequency and cyclogenesis locations in the BoB based on
analysis from historical data. Results for decadal scale variability signify
that in the present decade, the eastern BoB is quite conducive for cyclogenesis.
In this region, oceanic thermal field exhibits a warming trend, and found to
extend up to water depth of 600 m. In addition, this study also evaluates the
energy metrics such as Power Dissipation Index (PDI), and Accumulated Cyclone
Energy (ACE) for tropical cyclones that occurred during past four decades in
the BOB. The results signify that PDI for tropical cyclones in the present
decade is six times higher when compared with the past. The study has practical
applications for mapping coastal vulnerability in a changing climate.3
Although detailed meteorological data was unavailable,
travellers, merchants, and early colonial administrators documented large-scale
storms. One of the most devastating was the 1737 Calcutta Cyclone, which,
according to some colonial accounts, claimed nearly 300,000 lives in Calcutta
and its surrounding regions. It drastically altered river courses near the
Hooghly and damaged settlements in present-day Kolkata, Howrah, and North 24
Parganas. While modern scholars debate the exact death toll, it undoubtedly
marked the beginning of Bengal's recorded cyclone history.4
Cyclones in the Colonial Era (1800-1947)The 1864 Calcutta
Cyclone One of the most documented cyclones in Bengal's history struck in
October 1864.Kolkata (then Calcutta) was heavily damaged -over 50,000 deaths,
massive destruction of ships, warehouses, and colonial infrastructure. Areas
like Kakdwip, Sagar Island, Diamond Harbour, and Howrah faced severe tidal
waves. British administrators published reports highlighting the failure of
early warning mechanisms, as telegraph communication was primitive. The 1885
and 1909 Sundarbans Cyclones. The southern parts of the Sundarbans, including
Basanti, Gosaba, Hingalganj, were repeatedly flooded. These cyclones weakened
mangroves and increased salinity, affecting agriculture. The 1942 Midnapore
Cyclone South Bengal, especially Contai (Kanthi) and Digha, suffered heavy
devastation. Thousands perished, and agricultural fields turned saline for
years. Fishermen communities lost nearly all of their boats and gear.5
1970 Bhola Cyclone Though the Bhola Cyclone devastated
present-day Bangladesh most severely, its storm surge and wind field reached
the Sundarbans of India, affecting Gosaba, Patharpratima, Sagar Island, and
neighbouring villages. It remains the deadliest cyclone in recorded history
globally.1988 and 1996 Cyclones. These cyclones damaged the agricultural belt
of East Midnapore and North 24 Parganas, uprooting large tracts of
mangroves.Embankment breaches became a recurring problem, showing the weakness
of earlier designs.6
Modern Cyclones in Bengal (2000-2021), Cyclone Aila
(2009). Aila was a turning point in Bengal's environmental history. Wind speeds
above 120 km/h and massive storm surges destroyed embankments across Gosaba,
Hingalganj, Basanti, Kultali, Patharpratima, and led to long-term waterlogging.
More than 300 villages remained submerged for months. Salinity ruined
agricultural land and drinking water sources.7
Cyclone Amphan (2020), Amphan was one of the most
powerful cyclones in recent decades, with winds reaching 185 km/h. It caused
massive destruction in Kolkata, Howrah, Hooghly, North & South 24 Parganas,
uprooted lakhs of trees, disrupted power supply, and caused severe damage in
the Sundarbans. The economic loss in West Bengal was enormous Cyclone Yaas
(2021). Yaas caused significant tidal surges in Digha, Contai, Sagar Island,
Kakdwip, and extended inland flooding. Embankment failure again became a
recurring concern.8
The history of cyclones in Bengal is not just a chronicle
of natural disasters but a narrative of human resilience, adaptation, and
evolving knowledge. From early indigenous practices to colonial-era struggles,
and finally to modern scientific approaches, Bengal's response to cyclones has
gradually become more organised and technologically advanced. Yet the threat
remains severe due to climate change, rising sea levels, and ecological
degradation in the Sundarbans.Understanding the historical timeline of cyclones
helps us appreciate the challenges faced by the people of South 24 Parganas,
North 24 Parganas, East Midnapore, Hooghly, and other vulnerable districts. It
also reminds us that sustainable coastal management, mangrove preservation, and
community awareness are essential for a safer future.9
Cyclones in Bengal have long acted as transformative
forces, reshaping both the natural environment and human life in profound and
lasting ways, as the fragile deltaic ecosystem of the region makes it
extraordinarily vulnerable to the combined impacts of storm surges, high winds,
and saltwater intrusion that alter landscapes for decades. Each major
cyclone-from Aila in 2009 to Amphan in 2020-brings widespread ecological
disruption as seawater floods agricultural fields, permanently raising soil salinity
and rendering thousands of hectares uncultivable, forcing farmers to abandon
traditional rice cultivation and adopt risky practices such as brackish-water
aquaculture, while forests like the Sundarbans suffer massive destruction of
mangrove cover, loss of wildlife habitats, and weakening of the natural barrier
that once buffered the coast from tidal surges.10
These environmental changes directly intensify human
suffering: villages are submerged or eroded, drinking-water sources become
contaminated, livelihoods collapse as farmers, fisher folk, honey collectors,
and forest gatherers lose their means of survival, and families are displaced
from their ancestral lands to migrate to cities like Kolkata and Dhaka as
climate refugees, changing demographic patterns in the process. At the same
time, public health crises follow in the wake of cyclones, as stagnant water
breeds vector-borne diseases, scarcity of food and clean water leads to
malnutrition, and trauma from loss of homes and belongings causes long-term
mental distress. Infrastructure too suffers extensive damage-embankments break,
roads and bridges collapse, power lines are destroyed, schools and health
centers are flooded-delaying recovery for months and sometimes years.11
while each successive cyclone accelerates long-term
environmental degradation by raising sea levels, increasing soil salinity,
eroding riverbanks, reshaping islands and river channels, and reducing the
Sundarbans' capacity to regenerate naturally. Climate change has further
intensified the frequency and severity of these storms by warming Bay of Bengal
waters and lengthening the cyclone season, leaving already vulnerable
communities exposed to repeated disasters that gradually erode their
resilience.12
Thus, cyclones in
Bengal not only cause immediate destruction but also produce deep structural
transformations in the environment-altered landforms, collapsing ecosystems,
rising salinity, loss of biodiversity-and in society-migration, poverty,
weakened livelihoods, and increased dependency on disaster relief-revealing how
natural calamities become long-term socio-environmental processes rather than
momentary events. Sustainable recovery now requires stronger embankments,
restoration of mangrove forests, climate-resilient agriculture, improved
early-warning systems, and community-based disaster preparedness to ensure that
the region can face future cyclones with greater resilience.13
The history of cyclones in Bengal reveals a striking
interaction between nature's immense power and the evolving capacity of human
society to confront and adapt to recurring disasters. From early pre-colonial
observations to the scientific advancements of the modern era, Bengal's
experience shows how cyclonic storms have repeatedly reshaped its coastline, influenced
settlement patterns, and transformed local ecosystems, especially the fragile
Sundarbans delta. Over time, the region's response has shifted from traditional
community-based coping strategies to sophisticated systems involving satellite
forecasting, Doppler radar, engineered embankments, and large-scale evacuation
planning. Yet, despite these advancements, the increasing intensity of cyclones
in the twenty-first century-driven largely by climate change-demonstrates that
technological progress alone is not enough. Sustainable disaster management
must combine scientific innovation with ecological restoration, particularly
the revival of mangrove forests, climate-resilient livelihoods, and
community-led preparedness. In this way, the historical timeline of Bengal's
cyclones not only reflects a cycle of devastation but also tells a story of
resilience, learning, and adaptation. Ultimately, the evolution of human
response in Bengal underscores a crucial truth: safeguarding the future
requires harmonizing human development with environmental stewardship, so that
communities can coexist with a dynamic and increasingly unpredictable natural
world.
Notes and References
1.Eliot, John. Hand-Book of Cyclonic Storms in the Bay of
Bengal for the Use of Sailors. Gyan Publishing House, 2024, pp. 63-70
2.Chaudhuri, Amal Bhusan, Kalyan Chakrabarti, and Jugal
Kishore. Sundarbans Mangrove: Ecology & Wild Life. Surya Publications,
1989, pp. 170–178.
3.Sahoo, Bishnupriya, Bhaskaran K., and Prasad K.
"Assessment on Historical Cyclone Tracks in the Bay of Bengal, East Coast
of India." International Journal of Climatology, vol. 36, no. 1, 2016.
4.Sinha, Pradip. Calcutta in the Eighteenth Century.
FIRMA K. L. M., 1978, pp. 87-104.
5.Hughes, Lotte, and William Beinart. Environment and
Empire. Oxford University Press, 2007, pp. 334-376.
6.Kapur, Anu. Disasters in India: Studies of Grim
Reality. Rawat Publications, 2006, p. 283
7.Chaturvedi Sanjay and Sakhuja Vijay, CLIMATE CHANGE AND
THE BAY OF BENGAL
Evolving Geographies of Fear and Hope,2015, ISEAS
Publishing 30 Heng Mui Keng Terrace
Singapore 119614,pp-230-32
8.Hazra, Sugata. Climate Change Adaptation in Coastal
Region of West Bengal. WWF India, pp. 8-22, awsassets.wwfindia.org
9.Rangarajan, Mahesh, and Ramachandra Guha, editors. India's
Environmental History. Vols. 1-2, Permanent Black, 2011, pp. 400-421.
10.Ali, A. "Climate Change Impacts and Cyclone
Trends in Bangladesh." Global Environmental Change, 2007, pp. 429-444.
11.Mukhopadhyay, S. Deltaic Bengal: Environment, History,
and Climate. Primus Books, 2021, p. 282.
12.Hazra, Sugata, et al. Sea Level Rise and Coastal
Vulnerability of the Sundarbans.Springer, 2019.
13.India Meteorological Department (IMD).Cyclone Reports,
2009-2022. India Meteorological Department, 2009-2022.
Bibliography
1. Ali, A. "Climate Change Impacts and Cyclone Trends
in Bangladesh." Global Environmental Change, 2007, pp. 429-444.
2. Chaudhuri, Amal Bhusan, Kalyan Chakrabarti, and Jugal
Kishore. Sundarbans Mangrove: Ecology & Wild Life. Surya Publications, 1989,
pp. 170–178.
3. Eliot, John. Hand-Book of Cyclonic Storms in the Bay of
Bengal for the Use of Sailors. Gyan Publishing House, 2024, pp. 63-70.
4. Hazra, Sugata, et al. Sea Level Rise and Coastal
Vulnerability of the Sundarbans. Springer, 2019.
5. Hazra, Sugata. Climate Change Adaptation in Coastal
Region of West Bengal. WWF India, pp. 8-22, awsassets.wwfindia.org.
6. Hughes, Lotte, and William Beinart. Environment and
Empire. Oxford University Press, 2007, pp. 334-376.
7. Kapur, Anu. Disasters in India: Studies of Grim Reality.
Rawat Publications, 2006, p. 283.
8. Mukhopadhyay, S. Deltaic Bengal: Environment, History,
and Climate. Primus Books, 2021, p. 282.
9. Rangarajan, Mahesh, and Ramachandra Guha, editors.
India's Environmental History. Vols. 1-2, Permanent Black, 2011, pp. 400-421.
10. Sahoo, Bishnupriya, Bhaskaran K., and Prasad K.
"Assessment on Historical Cyclone Tracks in the Bay of Bengal, East Coast
of India." International Journal of Climatology, vol. 36, no. 1, 2016.
11. Sinha, Pradip. Calcutta in the Eighteenth Century. FIRMA
K. L. M., 1978, pp. 87-104.
12. India Meteorological Department (IMD). Cyclone Reports,
2009-2022. India Meteorological Department, 2009-2022