Geopoetics and
Cosmovision in the Works of Temsula Ao and Monika Varma: A Comparative Study
Rimpa Roy,
Assistant Professor,
Subhas Chandra Bose Centenary College,
University of Kalyani,
West Bengal, India.
&
Ph.D. Research Scholar,
Department of English,
Seacom Skills University,
West Bengal, India.
Abstract: This
paper undertakes a comparative study of geopoetics and cosmovision in the works
of Temsula Ao and Monika Varma, two contemporary Indian women writers whose
literary engagements foreground indigenous relationships with land, memory, and
ecology. Drawing upon geopoetic theory, indigenous cosmovision, ecocriticism,
and postcolonial spatial studies, the paper examines how landscape functions as
a repository of cultural memory, identity, and ethical responsibility. Temsula
Ao’s writings articulate a geopoetics rooted in the Naga hills, where land
emerges as a site of trauma, resistance, and historical continuity shaped by
oral traditions. In contrast, Monika Varma’s works reflect a Himalayan
cosmovision that emphasizes spiritual interconnectedness, sacred geography, and
ecological harmony. Through close textual and comparative analysis, the study
highlights both convergences and divergences in their spatial imagination,
demonstrating how indigenous narratives challenge dominant anthropocentric and
colonial paradigms. The paper contributes to indigenous literary studies by
foregrounding land-centered epistemologies and alternative ecological ethics.
Keywords:
Geopoetics; Cosmovision; Indigenous Literature; Ecocriticism; Spatial
Imagination
1. Introduction
The
last couple of decades in literary studies have seen an increase in the
attention given to spatial thinking and Indigenous worldviews maybe more than
any other tools in understanding the links between literature and land and
cultural identity. The literature and land and cultural identity. The
literature and land and cultural identity have introduced geopoetics and
cosmovision as valid frameworks that place, as primary elements of human
experience and landscape and memory and cosmology the human experience and
cosmology. These frameworks counter anthropocentric and Eurocentric worldviews
(Kim). Human and non-human nature and the cosmos. With regard to contemporary
Indian English literature, especially from Indigenous and marginalised
literatures, geopoetics and cosmovision have been and would continue to be
positive to understand the articulation of narratives addressing ecological
ethics, cultural memory, and the resistance to historical erasure.
The
term geopoetics describes the engagement of the poetic and the philosophical
with geographic space and places, focusing on the lived experience of the
geographic space rather than the abstract experience of it (Zayet). This
phenomenon describes the process of transforming space into a place through the
memories, emotions, histories, and cultural significance embedded into a
landscape through the narratives and imaginations of people. Geopoetic writing describes
“the experience of the relationship people have with the land, situating human
existence into a dynamic relationship with the land rather than simply
describing the terrain (Gustafsson). From this perspective, geography is seen
as a container of memory and identity of a people. As this relationship is
predominant in the discourse, this geography is primarily of memory, identity,
and belonging.
The
concept of cosmovision undoubtedly closely intersects with geopoetics,
particularly as it describes an Indigenous perspective on the universe as One
and the inclusion of life forms and nature. Origin life beliefs, nature as
sacred, and an ethical view of the human life toward the ecosystem are the core
principles of cosmovision. It differs from modern mechanistic views in that it
emphasizes the need for balance and harmony in relations between human and
non-human life. In literary texts, cosmovision manifests through myths and oral
traditions, symbols of the spirit and the ecology in a consciousness of balance
toward nature in life, portraying it as an active and living presence, rather
than a backdrop.
Geopoetics
and cosmovision in contemporary Indian Literature in English can highlight and
articulate climaxes in modern narratives around development, modernization and
cultural homogenization as well as offer alternatives through poetics and
cosmovisions. Authors from indigenous and borderland areas often focus on land
and ecology as being crucial to identity and culture (Ullah). Their works show
a strong consciousness of cultural survival and cultural, archival, and
ecological loss. They regain and reflect on indigenous knowledge systems
through the ethical frameworks surrounding nature. These works are especially
relevant within an Indian context as it constitutes of different ecological and
cultural configurations woven within a colonial and postcolonial structure.
This
analysis investigates the literary works of contemporary Indian women authors
Temsula Ao and Monika Varma, known for their inclusion of land, memory, and
indigenous perspectives. Temsula Ao’s writings are influenced by the Naga hills
of Northeast India and focus on oral histories, collective memory, and lived
experiences of conflict, violence and cultural memory. Ao’s representation of
geographical landscapes focuses on the intertwinement of geography with history
and identity, and the land’s witness to trauma and ongoing legacy (Zhang). On
the other hand, Monika Varma is located in the Himalayan region and engages
with the landscapes of her surroundings through an advanced spirit, seeking to
explore the principles of ecological balance, and sacred geography interwoven
with the cosmos. She portrays a moral and spiritual vision of the world in
which nature is to be revered, not exploited.
The
two authors have place-based identity and indigenous epistemologies in common,
and that is reason enough to carry out comparative research, even if they come
from different cultures and regions (Zhang). The works of these authors have
been reviewed in scholarship, but they have not been examined together through
geopoetics and cosmovision, which is where the gap is. There is a comparative
scholarship that establishes a foundation for the understanding of the field in
which indigenous narratives work, however, understanding the disparate and
local narratives of the land, memory, and ecological ethics adds to
understanding the challenges of diverse indigenous narratives and challenges
the cosmological imagination of the regions.
This
study aims to find out how these concepts articulate indigenous identity and
ecological consciousness, and the ways in which geopoetics and cosmovision
function in the works of Temsula Ao and Monika Varma (Dubey). The paper intends
to look closely at how memory and spirituality, the landscape, and the ethics
of the human-nature relationship are represented. The focus will mostly be on a
comparative and close reading of selected works in different genres, such as
poems, stories, and essays. These works are to be located in a wider context of
geopoetics, ecocriticism, and postcolonial spatial theory.
2. Review of Literature
2.1 Studies on Geopoetics
and Spatial Theory
Kenneth White’s contribution among other interdisciplinary
works proves white’s viewpoint that geopoetics is predominantly made up of
geography, philosophy, poetry, and integrating the three disciplines of
philosophy, geography, and poetry is geo-poetics. White explains that
geo-poetics emphasize the need for earth-thinking creatively and the need for a
change from mere geographical abstractions of space to geography of place
(Buallay). One of the major contributions of white’s work is the promotion of
space as an imaginary and experiential dimension of geography, which he
encourages literary geographers to promote as, and not merely as a placid
background or setting of a theme.
Theory of space has also been developed by
other scholars as, Tuan, and Soja, among other critics. Tuan is by the concept
of ‘topophila’ the, positive and negative, emotional, empathetic bonds of people
to place, and posits valuable theories that help to understand how landscapes
are culturally and psychologically constructed. Soja’s thirdspace adds to the
analysis or position of space to be not only physical or mental, but to also
be, lived or, imaginative, which is an important position to be. These
contributions in theory have been extensively used in literary analysis
especially where the regional, environmental, and post colonial narrative are
used to view how space and place influence the beliefs and power relations of
people.
An application of geopoetics to imperial
nature writing, indigenous writing, and eco-literature engage with how texts
offer alternative articulations of spatial imaginings and has been developed
within literary studies (Baleanu). Within geopoetics, studies have been
developed concerning the storytelling, memory, and myth frameworks as oppressed
groups contest the dominant geospatial frameworks of capitalism and
colonialism.
2.2 Critical Scholarship on
Temsula Ao
Temsula Ao’s work has been shaped, to a large
extent, by research on the intersections of Naga identity, historical memory,
and violence, alongside the traditions of the region’s oral history. In the
context of the Northeast Indian region’s political and military activism,
trauma and resilience have been focal points of some of the work Ao has
produced. From the perspective of archiving and storytelling, preserving native
memory and culture has been the focus of some of the research on Ao and
folklore (Wickham-Crowley).
Some of the research also considers Ao’s
construction of the land as ‘culturally’ and ‘historically’ resistant,
signifying the land as memory; the landscape is a repository of the country’s
endurance, multifaceted culture, and historical pain. There is also the
consideration of Ao’s narrative style and her incorporation of realism and myth
and oral traditions of storytelling, and reinforcing the point that in Naga
society, land and culture and identity are inextricably connected. There are
substantial geopoetic and cosmological frameworks in the research, but the
focus of most research is on place. The research is in no way diminished by
this focus.
2.3 Critical Scholarship on
Monika Varma
It has been established that Monika Varma has
integrated Himalayan ecology, spirituality, and environmental ethics in her
work. Some scholars, in situating her work, have used Indian nature writing
traditions and noted her writing as revering and describing the Indian
Himalayan mountains, forests, and rivers gems as sentient and sacred
(MacCormick). Varma's work has been and continues to receive the attention of a
considerable albeit critical advocacy of the eco-criticism discourse and is
seen as a center of attention on the concerns of the degradation of ecology and
climate change as well as the resulting and current loss of a complex and
sophisticated body of knowledge/ traditions.
These studies have also noted Varma's
spirituality, in particular the cosmonological Himalayan, indigenous, and
eco-spirituality traditions (Frank). In her work, nature guides and has the
moral authority to direct, teach, and change human behavior and ethical choice.
Varma's work has also been received with quite a degree of attention in
relation to her cosmo-ecological consciousness. However, that attention has not
yielded considerable scholarship that directly situates that works in
cosmo-ecological. Neither has such attention considered Varma's work in
relation to other works of indigenous letters.
2.4 Research Gap
Even with the advances in the
scholarship in geopoetics, ecocriticism, and Indigenous literature, the works
of Indigenous women writers from different parts of India remain under-explored
(relatively) using the comparative lens of geopoetics and cosmovision together.
Most scholars review Temsula Ao and Monika Varma independently, without making
the larger theoretical connections of land, cosmology and narrative in
different regions. This article attempts to bridge this gap by presenting a
comparative study where geopoetics and cosmovision are used to understand and
articulate the Indigenous literary expression.
3. Theoretical Framework
This
research is rooted in an interdisciplinary theoretical approach, where
Geopoetics, Indigenous Cosmovision, Ecocriticism, and Postcolonial Spatial Theory
converge. In this context, Geopoetics constitutes the central analytical
approach within which the function of landscape and/or place as major
organizing elements of the narrative constitutes focus. Such a perspective
provides the capacity to understand the ways in which geographic spaces are
inscribed, and/or, transformed into meaningful places, through memory,
narratives and cultural practices. The cosmovision component of this
interdisciplinary approach is certainly an ethnographic, and epistemological,
approach of Indigenous knowledge systems. Indigenous cosmovisions focus on
relational ontology, human and nonhuman animals, plants, and the natural world
as a web of reciprocal relationships (Castillo). Such a focus helps to
understand the spiritual, the mythical, and the ecological ethics present in
the texts of Ao and Varma. The analysis is further grounded in the theory of
Ecocriticism as it locates the literary texts within the context of various
responses to the environmental challenge facing the world, and the critique of
the dominant Anthropocentric narratives (Mekki). Postcolonial Spatial Theory is
utilized with respect to the Land and Identity in the context of subaltern
history and power relations in the Northeastern and Himalayan regional Peripheries
which are often depicted in the works.
The
fused alignment of these theoretical perspectives grants a refined comparative
analysis that accounts for convergence and divergence analysis for all areas of
concern. They, then, identify the mechanisms of geopoetics and cosmovision as
forms of resistance, cultural preservation, and ecological awareness in
contemporary Indian English Literature.
4. Methodology
The current research uses a qualitative
interpretivist approach well suited to the type of study being undertaken.
Specifically, the approach involves a close reading of the poems, short
fiction, and essays of Temsula Ao and Monika Varma on the topics of landscape,
memory, spirituality, and the indigenous way of knowing. The principle method
used to study the works of the two authors is comparative literature.
Specifically, the study seeks to establish thematic parallels and contrasts, if
any, in the literary representations of geopoetics and cosmovision. The study
is concerned with the landscapes described in the texts, the myths, and
narratives of the cosmos. Other texts are to provide the study with a context
and other scholarly and critical writings are to provide a rationale and
support for the argument the study seeks to present. The corpus of works to be
studied is limited and not intended to be representative of the whole works of
the authors in question. The study also uses a reading of the texts, and so it
is neither empirical nor ethnographic in nature. Thus, the study is not
intended to engage extensively with living indigenous practices. The approach,
however, is adequate to achieve the aims of the present study and makes a
contribution to the scholarship on literature and culture.
5. Geopoetics in the Works
of Temsula Ao
Temsula
Ao spent most of her life in the Naga Hills. Ao’s works will always reflect the
Naga Hills, and the Naga Hills will always reflect her works. The Naga Hills
will always be more than just the hills to Ao (MacCormick). To Ao, and to the
Naga Hills, the hills will always symbolize home. Like Ao, the hills will
always be mapped out by the stories and tradition of the Naga people. To Ao,
the Naga Hills will always be more than just a home in the abstract. To Ao, the
Naga Hills will always be an embodied home, resting upon the cultural,
emotional, and spiritual narratives of the Naga people. The Naga Hills will
always be home to the many stories Ao has preserved through her memory. Home
will always be the many hills Ao has so beautifully described in her works and
the many hills filled with culture, spirituality, and narratives the Naga Hills
have so passionately preserved. To Ao, home will always be the Naga Hills. To
the Naga Hills, the home will always be Ao.
In
Ao’s works, landscape functions as a powerful site of memory and Trauma. The
land testifies to colonial encounters, militarization, and political violence
that shape the Naga experience. The hills and forests stand as mute witnesses
to suffering, displacement and loss, and to the Othering of natural spaces as
repositories of communal suffering. However, these landscapes are not only
presented as sites of suffering. They also have sites of suffering. They also
have sites of suffering. They also have sites of suffering. They also have
sites of suffering. They also have sites of suffering. They also have sites of
suffering. They also have sites of suffering. They also have sites of
suffering. They also have sites of suffering. They also have sites of suffering.
They also have sites of suffering (Kim). These landscapes are not presented
solely as sites of victimhood, though. They hold sites of suffering, loss, and
deprivation. Foregrounding land as a witness to history, Ao reclaims Indigenous
spatial narratives and counters majoritarian historical narratives that are
often riddled with erasure and marginalization. Hence, her geopoetics
transforms landscape into a medium of remembering and articulating suppressed
histories. Ao’s spatial imagination
situates these narratives in oral tradition and storytelling. Her narratives
draw from folktales, mythologies, and community memories that are collectively
passed through generations, foregrounding the idea that storytelling, too,
functions as a spatial practice. Meaning is continually inscribed on land
through oral narratives, binding the past and the present in a cyclical
temporal structure (Zayet). Storytelling becomes a form of inhabiting space and
a way of securing the cultural memory of the landscape”. This oral-geopoetic
form defies the linearity of historical narratives and, in doing so,
foregrounds Indigenous knowledge systems anchored to a specific place.
Ao's
writings emphasize the connection between land, identity, and history in an
interrelated manner. The Nagas, culturally embedded upon a particular place,
could jeopardize their identity if the land were dislocated as they would lose
the important components of life: the sustenance of their cultural practices,
belief systems, and social relations. It would threaten the very essence of the
survival of their culture (Gustafsson). Ao's identity, expressed through a
geopolitically poetic lens, asserts, and captures the political and ethical
dominance of land, in the existence of indigenous people, as the essence of
memory, identity, and history, thus, place rooted. Ao's works hence illustrate
the geo-ethics of existence in the indigenous.
6. Cosmovision in the Works
of Monika Varma
Monika
Varma integrates the Himalayan region into her work; its shadowed mountains,
thick forests, and braided rivers and rivers capes clasped in sky are all more
than the physical and geographical. The Himalayas are a heterogeneous,
cosmologically active structure. Varma expresses a contemporary approximation
of the embodied indigenous cosmovision and critique of modernity that sees the
entirety of the ecology in the Himalayas as sacred, alive, and deserving of
moral consideration (Ullah). The sacred geography embedded in her work consider
and shape the Himalayas as an enchanted region in which all of the natural
features are revered as sacred and alive cosmic principles are invoked and
channeled. A seminal aspect of Varma's cosmovision is her focus on the
spiritual relation of interdependence, or the oneness, of humanity, the natural
world, and cosmos. The narratives describe a world of non-human characters
that, contrary to the modern, reductive framework of hierarchy and dominance,
exists as equal participants in the interdependent and symbiotic systems of
relationships; they are not subordinate to humanity. Humans are described as
caretakers of the natural world rather than dominators. It allows an ethic of
caretaking, humility, and responsibility to the natural world. Varma's literary
work aligns with the cosmological and indigenous philosophies that emphasize
harmony.
Nature
in Varma’s works behaves as a guiding ethical being influencing how people act.
Mountains serve as instructors, forests guardians, and rivers as life givers
(Zhang). These representations suggest an alternative to an anthropocentric
worldview and invite the reader to appreciate the agency of the natural world.
Ethical lessons are often embedded in nature encounters, noting that a form of
ecological wisdom is unearthed through presence with the natural world. Varma’s
work of writing, therefore, makes nature an ethical being that has the
potential to elevate human consciousness. Environmental consciousness is a
major to address concern in Varma's work, under the influence of indigenous
wisdom and traditional ecological knowledge. She critiques modern approaches to
development where the primary objective is economic growth, all other
ecosystems and cultural break down are of secondary consideration (Zhang). Her
writings support living sustainable and ecological balanced lifestyles, rooted
in indigenous knowledge systems. Varma’s cosmovision reversal to modern
ecological crises while grounding contemporary indigenous world views has
offered a new ecological ethic.
7. Comparative Analysis:
Convergences and Divergences
7.1 Shared Concerns
Temsula Ao and Monika Varma’s regional
contexts are practically opposite, yet, they have some of the same thematic and
philosophical concerns derived from the balance of their indigenous identity
and cultural memory (Dubey). Both writers emphasize the role of the land as the
identity of an individual and cultural identity. Furthermore, cultural identity
intimately intertwines with the land. Both authors display and convey a concern
for the cultural memory of a people and the historical cultural amnesia. They
advocate for and demonstrate the use of literature as a means for the
articulation of memory. Both authors exhibit a certain ethical relationship
with the land and the rest of nature. Ao and Varma do not see land as a
commodity and/or a possession. To the authors, land is relational, sacred and
moral. In their narratives, they call for an indigenous ecological ethics that
place responsibility, reciprocity and respect for the land, thus challenging
the dominant primitive capitalist and anthropocentric views. Both writers
equally resist colonial and modern disruptions that have historically
reconfigured indigenous relationships with land (Buallay). They use
storytelling and nomadic spatial imagination as a critique of colonization,
militarization and the plunder of nature. In their literary works, they
reoccupied and restored indigenous relational spatiality that historically has
been erased (Baleanu). They have restored and redefined colonial and postmodern
narratives of colonization, militarization and the degradation of the natural
world. They offer narratives and paradigms that preserve cultural viability and
ecological balance.
7.2 Points of Difference
Although
both Ao and Varma have overlapping themes, their work within the respective regional
cosmologies and the focus of their narratives differ quite a bit. Ao’s
geo-poetics draws from the unique historical and political frameworks of the
nagas where land is enmeshed with conflict, memory, and resistance. In her
work, spatial imagination is centered on the nuances of trauma and historical
struggle due to the northeast’s socio-political circumstances.
By
contrast, Varma’s in her narrative Himalaya Cosmovision focuses on spiritual
harmony and ecological unity, placing less emphasis on the politics of the
Himalaya. Varma’s work is contemplative and focuses on the interconnectedness
of the universe and ethical responsibility, where the landscape of the Himalaya
is meant to serve as a spiritual guide. These distinctions become more apparent
with how the narratives are approached. Varma’s writing with a more meditative
character is also more lyrical and draws from spiritual symbolism whereas Ao’s
is quite stark with the realism of her narratives intertwined with the
traditions of oral storytelling (Wickham-Crowley). This is, in these two
writings, where differentiated approaches to spatial imagination are most
starkly silhouetted. Ao with a politically grounded geopoetics and Varma with a
more spiritually oriented cosmovision.
8. Findings and Discussion
Indigenous
narratives which priorit land meaning are influenced by geopoetics as indicated
in the analysis (MacCormick). As narrative archives of memories and cultural
resistance, Temsula Ao’s works, from the indigenous perspective, convert the landscape
in aoek geopoetics of narrative. In the writings of Monika Varma, cosmo vision
is the core of the ethical and spiritual spatial landscape of geopoetics, and
the imagination of geospatial is bottomed.
The
two bodies of work created the space of cosmo vision as interconnectedness and
reciprocal illumination to redefine the ecological ethics. By proposing
alternative indigenous ecological consciousness because of relational caring
and community ethics, those writers reframe the dominant environmental
narrative and bring value to ecofeminism with relationality. The spatial resistance by narrative is what
postcolonial literary criticism recognizes in indigenous women writers (Frank).
By placing land and cosmology at the center, Ao and Varma broaden the periphery
of indigenous literary studies and regional voices in the global ecological and
cultural discourse, and the value of it is in the postcolonial literary
criticism.
9. Conclusion
The dissertation addressed
the geopoetics and cosmovision analytic themes the works of Temsula Ao and
Monika Varma and the landscape, memory, and indigenous perspectives entwined in
literary manifestations. Ao’s geopoeitcs emphasizes land as a remembered site
of trauma, resistance, and memory, and Varma’s cosmovision views nature as a
presence of the sacred, ethical, and rooted in the spirit of the Himalayas.
Vastly, indigenous writings narrate the many possible articulations of the
connections among people, the earth, and the sky. Ao and Varma’s writings contributes
respectively and differentially to outlining the fundamentals and principle
elements of relationships of members of the community and the earth, the
broader environment, and the sky. The dissertation’s was a significant academic
contribution in its approach to comparative studies that brought together
disparate voices of a single region in the context of a particular theory, and
its interregional comparative vision. The selected corpus, while of course
limited, opens a comparative indigenous literatures, interdisciplinary
ecological studies, and global cosmovisions avenues. Ao and Varma’s writings
remind alternative ways of world imagining that center land, memory, and cosmic
interconnections, which speak to the ongoing crisis of cultural homogenization
and ecological crisis, and greatly contribute to the intersection of theory,
literature, and the ecology.
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