Bezbaruah’s Heroines and the Women of Assam: Folktales of Silence, Resistance, and Survival

 

Bezbaruah’s Heroines and the Women of Assam: Folktales of Silence, Resistance, and Survival

 

Punnya Kalliyat,

Ph.D. Research Scholar,

Department of English,

St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous),

Devagiri, Kozhikode,

Kerala, India.

 

Abstract: Numerous components of folklore are intricately connected with women in Assamese society. Therefore, in the academic realm of Assamese folklore, a gender perspective invariably occupies an integral position. This research paper analyses the status of marginalised women in the well-known collection of folktales, Burhi Aair Sadhu, written by the famous Assamese author Lakshminath Bezbaruah. The select folktales in Bezbaruah's Burhi Aair Sadhu feature women as protagonists. Other folktales reference female characters and attempt to analyse various aspects of womanhood. These folktales attempt to examine how women fit into Assamese society, their identities, their relationships with other women, their position within the class system, and how different female traits such as honesty, tolerance, and sacrifice are perceived in a patriarchal society. The significance of this study lies in its potential to illuminate the position and social standing of women during the oral folklore period. Based on these folktales, an attempt will be made to examine the portrayal of women from the perspective of contemporary society and times.

Keywords: Assamese folktales, margin, women, female character, gender, patriarchy

 

Introduction

Lakshminath Bezbaruah, a distinguished Assamese author, is renowned for his compendium of folk narratives titled Burhi Aair Sadhu, translated as Grandma's Tales (Bezbaruah, 1911), a prominent body of children's literature in Assam. Bezbaruah curated these tales with the dual purpose of both entertaining and instructing the young readership. In his scrutiny of the term Sadhu-Katha, denoting a moral narrative, Bezbaruah dissects the moral dimensions inherent in Assamese folk tales.Burhi Aair Sadhu comprises a collection of 30 folktales, with a notable prevalence of widely read and popular narratives such as Tejimola, Bandar Aur Xial (The Monkey and the Fox), Xorobjan, Kukurikona (The Dog), and Silonir Jiyekor Sadhu (The Tale of the Kite's Daughter). The titular designation, Burhi Aair Sadhu, featuring a female narrator, alludes to a tradition historically endorsed and fostered by women. This accentuation underscores women's roles as custodians of historical narratives and cultural recollection, while male reformers concurrently contributed to the perpetuation of patriarchal and hierarchical frameworks, both materially and spiritually. Significantly, a substantial number of folktales within Bezbaruah's opus feature female protagonists, exemplified in narratives such as Tejimola, Mekurir Jiyekor Sadhu (The Tale of Cat’s Daughter), Silonir Jiyekor Sadhu (The Tale of the Kite's Daughter), and Tula are Teja.  The thematic underpinning of these narratives revolves around ‘marginalised women,’ denoting individuals situated beyond societal confines and relegated to insignificance. This condition restricts their available choices and means of sustenance. The phenomenon of marginalisation, as depicted in these tales, is elucidated as multidimensional, multicausal, and rooted in historical contexts. The preeminence of female characters and their endeavours resonates across various other folktales within the collection, portraying a multifaceted exploration of the marginalised female experience. Bezbaruah's narratives serve as a lens through which the complexities of marginalisation are unveiled, prompting contemplation on societal norms and their implications for the individuals situated at the peripheries of established structures.

The Cat’s Daughter: A Reflection on Gender Disparities

 

Mekurir Jiyekar Sadhu (The Tale of the Cat’s Daughter), one of the folktales from Burhi Aair Sadhu, discusses the social distinctions between men and women. In The Second Sex, Simone De Beauvoir critically examined the deterministic essentialism that ascribes gender to biological sex (45). Her famous assertion, ‘one is not born a woman, but becomes one,’ underscores the pivotal role of environmental and social factors in the construction of identity. Men and women should be recognised simply as human beings, without creating distinctions or imposing artificial barriers in social interactions. By acknowledging them as equals, we can reduce the differences between genders, even if we cannot eliminate them. This folklore gives an insight into how a male-dominated society perceives women merely as objects of sexual desire, but not as individuals having their own identity. The female protagonist of this tale is the younger daughter of a cat, and the story chronicles this young girl's odyssey through a patriarchal landscape.

 

Soon after, when the merchant came for the business, he saw the lonely girl sitting on the banks of the river and crying and took her in a boat and left. Upon reaching the house, he made her his youngest wife, along with his other two wives. (Sharma)

These lines from the tale imply that the merchant picked up the youngest daughter of the cat, the lonely charming girl who was sobbing on the riverbank and made her his third wife. This happened when she was crying on the banks of the river after the abduction of her sister. Merchant considered the girl as an object of desire, and her consent was of no significance to him. Women’s sexual objectification is manifested through the objectifying male gaze, which involves the visual scrutiny of women's bodies or their sexual body parts (Kaschak 71). It is noteworthy that the Merchant never enquired about the cat's younger daughter's distress or attempted to rescue the elder daughter, whom the Merman had kidnapped. Here, there is a clear indication of the identity and nature of men. After making her his third wife, he never fulfilled his responsibilities towards his wife. He was never present in the two instances of his new wife’s delivery. It was a very crucial time for the cat’s daughter to be waived by her husband. This suggests that the merchant was only attracted to the tender age of the girl and wanted to fulfil his sexual needs and pleasure. Sexual objectification views the human body solely as an instrument for sexual gratification. Those who are objectified are evaluated and defined by their sexual attributes or functions, with their personal identity and subjectivity being disregarded (Bartky 90).

The hatred of the two previous wives for the youngest of them was sparked by the merchant's love for his youngest wife. This indicates the social endorsement of polygamy. It was accepted as a traditional practice by some women, but it does not guarantee happiness in all such marriages. Gerdemann's research revealed that unequal treatment of wives by their husbands in polygamous families results in different forms of violence. As the husband was not present during the delivery period, both convinced the youngest wife that she had given birth to a wooden log and a pumpkin. The truth is that she gave birth to two healthy sons, and the wives floated them in the river. The merchant had no concerns about the events and made no effort to investigate them further. When he learnt about the situation, he did not hesitate to assert his dominance over his wife. The lines, “Merchant thinking these things of the younger sister-in-law to be true, decided that she was ugly and chased her out of his house and set up a house in the toilet” (Sharma) illustrate how, despite not being responsible for the cruel actions of the other two wives, the youngest daughter of the cat faced the severe punishment imposed by the man. Eventually, the merchant learned that his two previous wives had plotted to have his youngest wife killed. After learning the truth, the merchant cut off the noses and ears of his two disdainful wives and chased them out of his home without attempting to delve into the underlying causes of the entire scenario. This indicates the gender disparities present at the time as well as the social picture of dominant men. The folktale thus clearly indicates that the younger daughter of the cat, the protagonist, and the other two female characters of women, did not have a voice in patriarchal society. In this tale, the wounding and disfiguring of women is not viewed as problematic. Instead, it is depicted as a form of punishment for wives who resist obeying their husbands. Acts such as cutting off noses and ears and expelling women from their homes illustrate severe physical discrimination against women in society. These women are subjected to physical torture, brutal murder, and mutilation, with their bodies becoming the primary site for such violence.

From Innocence to Subjugation: Journeyof the Kite’s Daughter

 

Another tale from the collection that indicates polygamy and male supremacy is Silonir Jiyekor Sadhu (The Tale of the Kite’s Daughter). This tale speaks of a wealthy potter in a village. He worried about the fact that his wife only gave birth to daughters, which was a persistent source of concern for him. Son preference is an age-old concern that persists even today. The prevalent preference for sons in many societies may stem from the perception of sons as primary earners for the family, providing security in their old age, and maintaining close family ties. Contributing factors include cultural restrictions on female participation in the workforce and deeply ingrained cultural misconceptions about women. When his wife became pregnant again, the potter spoke to her and said: “If you get a daughter this time too, I will sell you to the Nagas” (Sharma). A woman who lives each day of her life in dread of her husband and uncertainty is the social representation of a woman in that society. She is denied the chance to enjoy motherhood, and the thought of giving birth to another daughter makes her tremble in fear of her husband. Later, she gave birth to a girl child and out of fear, she threw the child into the river in an earthen pot, which was then taken by a kite. The child grew up with her kite mother to be a beautiful woman. Mothers often feel concerned about their grown-up daughters in society due to the potential dangers and the fact that women are frequently regarded with objectifying desire. This situation was analogous to Kite's mother as well. The writer anthropomorphised the kite, attributing human-like emotions to it. The kite expressed feelings similar to those of a human mother when it stated: 

Aai, you have grown up now, I always leave you alone and go far away, seeing that I am very afraid that someone will do something to you. (Sharma) 

It was then that a merchant became captivated by the beauty of the kite's daughter and expressed his wish to marry her to the kite. It has long been a social norm that young girls should not be housed for a prolonged period. He tried to convince the kite mother by saying:

 I have a lot of wealth, I am a wonderful person. But I now have seven wives. If you marry your daughter to me without any objection, then I will keep her happy and will never hurt her. (Sharma)

She is consequently wedded off by her kite mother to the merchant who has seven other wives as he tries to win her and the kite mother over by boasting about his possessions and promising to keep the kite daughter happy forever. But it was just like a common trait of men to obtain the things they desire. This shows how women had no choice in marriage, as they were often viewed as individuals who had to spend their entire lives under the influence and control of the provider, the man. The prevailing view is that women are better suited for domestic roles, leading to their denial of certain rights based on this belief. On the contrary, men are granted superior status regardless of their experience, age, or intelligence and are considered the unquestioned heads of the family (Agujiobi 69). Women were also depicted as individuals with a deep longing for their husband's love and recognition. We see how the other wives of the merchant burn with resentment because they believe that their husbands will no longer love them. Polygamy can thus result in jealousy, competition, conflicts over the unequal distribution of household resources, and the onset of mental health issues among the women involved in these relationships (Moosa et al. 14). The preference of the husband for a particular wife leads to jealousy and hatred for the most loved wife. Thus, a sense of animosity was evoked among the seven existing wives towards the newlywed. They made considerable efforts to provoke their husband’s disfavour against her. When their malicious schemes failed due to the intervention of the kite mother, they resorted to killing the kite mother and burying it. This was the result of jealousy seeded by the husband inside all seven wives during Bihu that led to the murder of the kite mother. At the end of the folktale, the other wives try to sell the newlywed to a fisherman. The line: “They described the beauty of this girl to the fisherman in such a way that the fisherman was greedy and agreed to take her away” (Sharma) illustrates how women were objectified in the past, to the extent that they could be traded as if they were mere commodities. This reflects the devaluation of women to possessions rather than recognising their individuality and agency. When the husband learns of this deceit, the seven wives had to go through a harsh trial and six of them were buried alive by the husband.

Even if those six wives were projected as evil in society, the actions of the merchant are perceived as harsh and unjustifiable. As a patriarchal figure, he initially promised to ensure the happiness of his wives, including the kite’s daughter. However, he subsequently married one woman after another, leading to conflicts among the wives and highlighting the exploitation of women under patriarchy. The folktale portrays these wives negatively, yet they are human beings who do not deserve such brutal treatment. On the contrary, the kite's daughter, depicted as innocent, lacks a voice as a protagonist. This reflects the larger literary tendency to marginalise women’s voices. Despite her role, she fails to oppose the inhumane act of burying the women alive, reinforcing the societal portrayal of women as existing solely to please their husbands and lacking agency. This narrative illustrates that historically and contemporaneously, women's roles and treatment remain constrained by a male-dominated society, where their voices are suppressed and their existence undervalued (Talukdar and Gogoi 5670)

Resilience and Transformation: The Story of Tejimola

 

The widely recognised folktale in Burhi Aair Sadhu is Tejimola, in which the protagonist Tejimola is killed by her evil stepmother out of jealousy while her father is away on business as a travelling merchant. The tale of Tejimola is one of those that has created cult status among the Assamese community. Tejimola's story represents the victory of the human spirit and a strong will refusing to submit to the atrocities of a stepmother or accept defeat. It can be considered a survival story. The narrative of Tejimola has garnered diverse interpretations in contemporary discussions. Satola and Das (572), in their research work, positioned Tejimola on the societal periphery, engaging in a comparative analysis with Cinderella narratives. This comparative examination delves into the socioeconomic determinants contributing to the marginalisation of characters like Tejimola within a specific societal context. Tejimola, the main character, is portrayed both politically and figuratively as a helpless young girl who lacks an identity, is frightened, and has no voice. Although she is the main protagonist in her story, she is not perceived to have a strong personality. When viewed from a different perspective, Tejimola's stepmother appears to have a more powerful character than Tejimola because she is a woman who takes action and is very similar to a contemporary woman who acts for her existence, her happiness, and her rights. In folktales, stepmothers are often depicted as cruel and heartless villains, with female characters frequently cast in villainous roles. In this narrative, Tejimola’s stepmother is mean and brutal, yet her motives are overlooked. Her perceived cruelty might be a result of being childless and the experience of marginalisation due to infertility. Additionally, her husband’s affection towards his daughter, rather than her, exacerbates her feelings of neglect. Thus, the stepmother’s animosity toward Tejimola can be viewed as a result of her suffering and isolation, expected to endure her hardships silently.

These ideas are reflected in what she said:

If I leave it like that and the father comes and somehow understands it, it will be a big issue. I will join this crisis. While marrying her, I have to throw all the belongings of my house out with her. This is my step-daughter. If there are no children on my forehead, what is the use of feeding her, too? It would be useful to move the money that her father would spend to my mother's house. Hence, I will have to put an end to it before her father returns. (Sharma)

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We are aware of the fact that women were always portrayed negatively or derogatorily as innocent, silent, pure characters before the study of feminism. Tejimola appears as pure and chaste in this context, which is also a cultural and literal norm that was likely passed down by men in the community or the representation of women by male writers. Tejimola gets portrayed as being innocent because, despite being brutalised and subjected to torture that is painful until death, she does not respond in kind. Tejimola would be seen as the victim and her stepmother as the victimiser if we were to evaluate these characters from the standpoint of the victim relationship. However, this relationship is a dyadic one rather than a binary one, and the victim-victimiser dyad is intricate. The conflict that serves in this duo is the abuse dynamic, which results from using one's position of benefits against another individual. All abusive relationships share traits such as hostile or violent behaviour, persuasion, cultivating fear to exert control, or establishing a position of power. 

Tejimola appears in a variety of tree forms, but they all always reveal her true identity, which is how she enters the appropriate hands. It is intriguing that she always returns in a new form, and that too in multiples, like bottle gourds and citrus, each time her stepmother crushes her or attempts to crush her. Every time she gets buried, Tejimola gathers her strength to adopt a new persona and sing defiantly about her suffering. She sings:

Don't raise your hands, don't pick flowers, you sailor.

Along with the jute cloth, my stepmother pounded me, 

I am Tejimola. (Sharma)

Here, Tejimola appears to be claiming her identity and self. Contrary to the rigid identities that a patriarchal society seeks to confine people in, her identity proves to be fluid. The character's survival circumstances are quite attractive; however, she battled constantly for a better, more peaceful life despite losing her mother at a young age and being denied her stepmother's love and affection. She eventually acquired a strong will and appeared in multiple forms of existence. Many bodily transformations occur as she changes from a human to a bottle-gourd tree, a citrus tree, and eventually a lotus, before returning to human form. This ability to transform, adapt, and survive highlights Tejimola's agency as a person who thrives in nature.

While examining the intricate layers of gender roles and feminist perspectives in these select folktales, it becomes evident that these narratives are not merely stories for entertainment but are significant cultural artefacts that reflect and shape societal attitudes toward gender. Women are portrayed in literature as being objects of a male-dominated society and unable to live on their own. Patriarchy is not always domination of men over women. It is the domination of older men over their families. According to Millet, the principles of patriarchy are twofold: Men dominate females and elders dominate the young (22). Ferguson has also characterised patriarchy as the authority of the father (1048). Geetha states that patriarchy is the absolute rule of the father or the eldest male member over his family (68). Gender is a cultural category. Different cultures construct their cultural norms for their social structure. Patriarchy is ingrained in the majority of gender relations in society, and this power dynamic manifests itself in many aspects of women's lives, including control over their labour, sexuality, reproduction, property, and other economic resources, to name a few (Bhasin 12). Tales and personal narratives frequently cross over in the South Asian context to blend fantasy and reality; what one must infer from this is how, sometimes, through these very fictional narratives, women incorporate their tales and represent themselves (Devi 7).

The folktales by Bezbaruah feature a wide range of female characters. Love, sacrifice, and other qualities are on par with how women are by nature. Folktales also highlight the unfavourable traits of women, such as suspicion and jealousy. Mekurir Jiyekar Sadhu (The Tale of the Cat’s Daughter) serves as a stark depiction of the objectification and commodification of women within a patriarchal framework. The protagonist's journey underscores the deepseated gender biases that view women as mere objects of sexual desire rather than individuals with their own identities and agency. The narrative illustrates the dire consequences of such objectification, revealing how women's worth is often diminished to their physical appearance and their ability to fulfil male desires. Moreover, the tale highlights the harsh realities of polygamy, showcasing the jealousy, competition, and violence that can arise within such marital arrangements. The cat’s daughter, despite being the protagonist, has little agency, reflecting the broader societal tendency to marginalise women’s voices and experiences. Similarly, Silonir Jiyekor Sadhu (The Tale of the Kite’s Daughter) portrays the pervasive issue of son preference and the resulting subjugation of women. The potter's rejection of his wife and daughter based on gender reveals the cultural pressures and fears that women face in patriarchal societies. The narrative further explores the theme of polygamy and male supremacy, depicting how women are often married off without their consent and forced into subordinate roles. The kite’s daughter’s lack of voice and agency, despite being central to the story, underscores the persistent marginalisation of women in both literature and society. This story, like many others, reflects the complex interplay between gender and folklore, where patriarchal ideologies are simultaneously perpetuated and challenged. Tejimola stands out as a tale of resilience and transformation. Despite the brutal actions of her stepmother, Tejimola’s spirit and identity endure through various transformations. Her ability to adapt and survive highlights her agency and the strength of the human spirit in the face of adversity. The tale also presents a nuanced perspective on the stepmother’s cruelty, suggesting that her actions may stem from her marginalisation and suffering. This complexity challenges the simplistic binary of victim and victimiser, offering a more layered understanding of the dynamics of power and abuse within familial relationships.

Conclusion

 

The Assamese folktales examined in this study are not merely repositories of cultural memory; they are active instruments of social reproduction, inscribing gender roles that continue to reverberate in contemporary Assam. These narratives, steeped in motifs of female sacrifice, silence, and suffering, map onto the lived realities of Assamese women today, where systemic gender inequalities remain entrenched across domestic, economic, and institutional spheres. The resonance between folktale silences and the silencing of women in public life, law enforcement, and healthcare access is not coincidental; it is cultural continuity in practice. Contemporary data reveals a deeply troubling landscape: Assam consistently records the highest rates of violence against women in India; nearly one in three women faces domestic abuse; female literacy and workforce participation remain alarmingly low, particularly in rural and tea plantation communities. The prevalence of child marriage, marital rape, and dowry related violence underscores how patriarchal control over women’s bodies and choices persists under both traditional and modern guises. Furthermore, state mechanisms, though constitutionally obligated, have failed to ensure rights-based protection, leaving survivors of violence with limited access to justice, shelter, or support. By placing these contemporary conditions in dialogue with literary representations, this article reveals how gendered oppression in Assam is not simply a matter of individual violation but the product of deeply historical, cultural, and structural forces. Folktales, in their repetition of gendered silences and moral instruction, do not merely reflect patriarchal norms; they sustain them. Yet, feminist analysis offers the potential to destabilise these scripts, both in literature and in life, by rereading, resisting, and re-writing the spaces where women have been confined. Acknowledging the interplay between cultural narratives and current material conditions is not only an academic imperative but a political one, demanding transformative interventions in education, policy, and representation.

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