Rabindranath Tagore’s Travels: Wanderings of a
Hopeless Romantic or the Groundwork of Internationalism?
Dr. Madhurima Neogi,
Assistant
Professor,
Department
of English,
Tamralipta
Mahavidyalaya,
West
Bengal, India.
Abstract: Rabindranath Tagore,
the self-proclaimed lover of the distant, famously travelled across five
continents and visited thirty-four countries with his purpose sometimes being
individual pleasure but mostly to answer invitations to lecture at various
organizations, and sometimes to raise funds for his academic institution
Visva-Bharati. This paper will aim to position itself at the point of
negotiation between Tagore’s persona as the romantic traveller and one where
his travels furnished him with the necessary cultural context and
socio-philosophical clarity to propound his concept of Internationalism.
Through his travels, Tagore had the opportunity to witness the growing tide of
xenophobia, racial hatred and warmongering in Europe with his infamous trip to
Italy being a high point where on one hand, Mussolini sought to expose Tagore
to his propaganda and gain his endorsement of the same while on the other hand,
detractors of Fascism took great personal risk to meet Tagore in person to tell
him the truth of Mussolini’s administration. The paper will examine Tagore’s
response to this critical moment in human history alongside correlating it with
his critique of Nationalism that formed the crux of his lectures delivered
during his trip to Japan. As Tagore was keen to witness an age of the
resurgence of Asia as a spiritual as well as cultural mentor and guide to the
rest of the world, his trip to China was also instrumental in the formation of
his concept of internationalism. The paper will also refer to how Tagore sought
to incorporate the spirit of internationalism in his Visva-Bharati as he
invited scholars and artists from all over the world, and via the cultural
transfer that took place, created a unique international ethos. In order to
critically study Tagore’s subject positioning as a traveller, the paper will
refer to Tagore’s letters, travelogues like Europe Jatrir Diary, Japan Jatriand account of his
fellow travelers like Kabir sange
Europe-e by Nirmal Kumari Mahalanobis, the news reports published in the
Modern Review of the travels of
Tagore.
Keywords: internationalism,
xenophobia, cultural transfer, Visva-Bharati
Rabindranath Tagore, in a conversation with Maitreyee
Devi, had revealed an innate quality of his own character when he had described
himself as one who forever yearned and longed for the distant – for that which
is far away. He explained that this longing defined the detachment with
material circumstances that lay at the core of his personality; he further
stated that it was not a mere romantic mood but a deep philosophical truth that
underlay his very existence. He said,
চিরদিন আমি সংসারের শত সহস্র
রকম
কাজের
মধ্যে
রয়েছি,
- কিন্তু আমার
মন,
নৌকা
যেমন
তীরের
বন্ধনের মধ্যে
পথ ক’রে নিয়ে
ভেসে
যায়,
তেমনি
ভেসে
চলেছে। …তাই
একদিন
লিখেছিলুম – আমি
চঞ্চল
হে আমি সুদূরের পিয়াসী – এ কিন্তু একটা
কবিত্বের কথা
মাত্র
নয়।
লোকে
মনে
করে
এটা
কবির
একটা
মুড
মাত্র। কিন্তু তা ঠিক নয়। এ আমার
জীবনের গভীরতম সত্য
যে আমি সুদূরের পিয়াসী। (152)
[I have always remained surrounded by hundreds and
thousands of worldly duties – but my mind – the way in which a boat manages to
float away from the limits of the land –my mind too has ever remained floating
thus. ... That is why I had once written – I am restless, I am longing for the
distant – it is not just a poetic expression. People see it simply as a mood of
a poet. But that is not correct. It is the innermost truth of my life that I
long for the distant.]
Perhaps this eternal longing of Tagore translated into
rendering him the veteran traveller that he was having visited five continents
and as many as thirty-four countries apart from his travels across the length
and breadth of India. While these travels undoubtedly enriched his creative
mind and vision, the aim of this paper would be to analyze cultural and
political importance of Rabindranath Tagore’s 1916 trip to Japan and his 1926
trip to Italy in particular with references tohis trips to China and Java among
others.
The First Trip to Europe
While Tagore had travelled to England as a young adult
for the specific purpose of studying law, he had abandoned that purpose and
returned home. The first experience of a foreign land had exposed the young
poet to multifarious aspects of the British culture that he documented in his Europe
Prabashir Patra. The relevance of this document lies in the way Tagore
depicts the racism faced by him and his companions as well as his analysis of
the reactions of the colonized Indians when they came his contact with the
colonizer master-race in the home country of the latter. Tagore’s graphic
description brings out the sense of inferiority and slavishness that he had
witnessed among his co-passengers as well as other Indians he came across
during his stay in England.
A Nobel Laureate’s Forray into the World
These experiences were certainly very different from the
experiences he later had when he visited Europe afterthe publication of his Gitanjali
and certainly after winning the Nobel Prize.Tagore had proved to be a thoroughly
unanticipated shock to the Western mind that was hitherto unaware of any
excellence of literary or cultural nature that might distinguish a colonized
and supposedly inferior race. After Tagore’s third foreign tour, Poetry: A
Magazine of Verse wrote,
To-day it is not a poet of Anglo-Saxon race but a Hindoo
with divinatory power in English, who has the keenest vision of the new beauty
and the richest modern language, not only for the millions who speak his
mother-tongue but also for those far-scattered millions who carry Shakespeare’s
mother-tongue over the world. …this Hindoo shows us how provincial we are;
England and America are little recently annexed corners of the ancient earth,
and their poets should peer out over sea-walls and race-walls and pride-walls,
and learn their own littleness and the bigness of the World. (Dutta 30)
Not only was Tagore’s literature and philosophy providing
the West a new perspective on the colonized India but even the clothes he wore
was a clear statement of ownership over one’s own culture and a clear refusal
to imitate the colonizer’s ways. While Tagore’s first trip to England had
indeed included Western suits in his wardrobe, by the third foreign tour,
Tagore had entirely eschewed Western wear in favour of his long robes that came
to be so uniquely tied with his visual identity. Kalyan Kundu comments,
…his usual attire abroad consisted of colourful long silk
robes over a kurta and specially designed headgear on his
head. Only once was he outraged when his wardrobe was in disarray during a trip
to the USA in 1916. There he was forced to give a lecture in a silk shirt and
tweed pair of trousers. “I am like a show lion in a circus now!” was his
immediate reaction in a letter he wrote to Harriet Monroe…(Kundu)
The fact that the issue of what an Indian wore abroad was
deeply connected to the claiming of one’s cultural identity, is highlighted by
Maitreyee Devi, whose father Surendranath Dasgupta, an eminent philosopher, was
invited to lecture in America in 1925-26. She writes how her father asked
Tagore for advise on what to wear as he wanted to avoid being orientalized by
wearing something like a turban that often ledWesterners to mistake the wearer
for a king, snake-charmeror a saint. He also did not wish to wear a suit as
that could lead to being misidentified as an African American. Tagore answered
this query by sending a robe similar to what he himself wore and a bokku both
of which being Eastern in origin could help Dasgupta in wearing his cultural
identity while avoiding the pitfalls mentioned.
১৯২৫-২৬ সালে
আমার
পিতা
আমেরিকাতে নিমন্ত্রণ পেলেন। ওখানে
তখন
ভারতীয়রা স্যুট
পরলে
নিগ্রোভ্রমে লাঞ্ছিত হতো।
পাগড়িটা থাকলে
রাজা,
ফকির,
সাপুড়ে, হিন্দু বা সাধু বলে চলে যায়। তাহলে আর ঘৃণা
করে
না,
তাড়াতাড়ি ভাগ্যগণনা করতে
হাত
বাড়িয়ে দেয়।
তাই
আমেরিকা যাবার
আগে
বাবা
রবীন্দ্রনাথের কাছে
পোষাক
সম্বন্ধে পরামর্শ চাইলেন। একখানা জোব্বা ও বক্কু (তিব্বতী জামা) চলে এল। (Swarger Kachhakachhi, 80)
[In 1925-26, my father received an invitation from
America. Over there, Indians faced harassment if they wore suits as they were
then mistaken to be African Americans. The presence of a turban leads the
wearer into being identified as a king, a fakir, a snake-charmer, a Hindu or a
saint. Then the people no longer hate then rather they quickly extend their
palms for a palm-reading. So, before going to America, my father asked
Rabindranath for advise on what to wear. A robe and a bokku(Tibetan dress)
arrived (from him).]
This is clearly indicative of the fact that Tagore’s
assertion of his cultural identity through his attire was slowly influencing
other Indians to take similar steps as well.
The Internationalism of Rabindranath Tagore and his Trip
to Japan
Alongside the confident ownership of his cultural
identity, by this time, Tagore has already laid the foundations of his
philosophy of internationalism as he was continually deprecating xenophobia,
narrow sectarian pride as well as desire of self-glorification through his
writings and lectures. Even within the country, Tagore had to navigate the
troubled waters of absolute and indiscriminate hatred towards the colonial
master,and total surrender to the British government. Ramachandra Guha opines,
“A characteristic Indian reaction to the fact of colonialism was an unthinking
deference; a second reaction, an equally unthinking defiance. Tagore was
uncomfortable with both.” (Guha). Tagore’s
inclusive nationalism did not accept the rejection of the positives of any
culture or the absolute glorification or unquestioning acceptance of precedence
of any religion or race for the sake of national pride. In his essay “East and
West in Greater India,” he writes,
In India, the history of humanity is seeking to elaborate
a specific ideal, to give general perfection to a special form which shall be
for the gain of all humanity – nothing less than this is its end and aim. And
in the creation of this ideal type, if Hindu, Moslem or Christian should have
to submerge the aggressive part of their individuality, that may hurt their
sectarian pride, but will not be accounted a loss by the standard of Truth or
Right. (Greater India, 82-83)
This sense of an inclusive nationalism that foregrounds
the sense of truth and right over narrow sectarianism is what reached its most
detailed avatar when Tagore delivered his lectures on Nationalism during his
visit to Japan in 1916. Tagore started noting the distinguishing features of
Japanese culture right from his sea-voyage to the country via a Japanese ship.
In his travelogue Japan-Jatri, Tagore notes the contrast between the
hierarchical relationship between the Captain and staff in any British ship,
and the very natural human interactions between the Captain, ship’s staff and
the passengers on the Japanese ship. He goes on to state how, in spite to
deriving some lessons from the West, Japan remains the master of his own
thoughts and actions: “জাপানে
প্রাচ্যমন পাশ্চাত্যের কাছ থেকে কাজের শিক্ষালাভ করেছে, কিন্তু কাজের কর্তা তারা নিজেই।
এইজন্যে মনের ভিতরে একটা আশা হয় যে, জাপানে হয়তো পাশ্চাত্য কাজের সঙ্গে প্রাচ্যভাবের
একটা সামঞ্জস্য ঘটে উঠতে পারে। … জাপানে সেই কাজ চলছে সন্দেহ নেই। অন্তত, এই জাহাজটুকুর
মধ্যে আমি তো এই দুই ভাবের মিলনের চিহ্ন দেখতে পাচ্ছি।“ (Rabindra Rachanabali, vol. 10, 411) [In Japan,
the Eastern mind has taken lessons in work from the Western mind but the former
remains the master of its own action. That is why, I am hopeful that it might
be possible to witness a balance between the Western work and the Eastern
thought in Japan. … Undoubtedly the process is going on in Japan. At least,
within this ship, I can observe the blending of these two ideas.]The Bengali
speech that Tagore delivered at Uyeno Sage, upon his arrival to Japan, was also
committed to the realization of a harmonious blend of the Western and Eastern
values. The newspaper Kobe Herald reported:
The Bengali speech was translated by Prof. Kimura into
Japanese, and was to the effect that the poet was disappointed on his arrival
at Kobe, for everything that greeted his eye was pure imitation of the West. It
was when he reached Shizuoka that he felt that he had come to Japan, for a
Japanese priest was at the station to meet him, burning fragrant incense, while
his hands were joined together when speaking to the Indian visitor. There were
two antagonistic currents in the country, new Japan and old Japan, and it was
his ardent desire that Japan would cherish what was her own. (Dutta 39)
Tagore repeatedly charged Japan with the responsibility
of synthesizing the scientific and technological advancements that she had
imbibed from the West with her own spiritual soul and values thereby carving a
unique path that can be the hope for all of humanity. Tagore urged Japan to not
lose her own identity and give in to the jingoism and xenophobia that was
sweeping across Europe. Tagore called friendship “the only natural tie which
can exist between nations.” (The English Writings of Rabindranath Tagore,
vol. 2, 439)
Tagore’s critique of the Western notion of nationalism
that was entrenched in deep exclusiveness, did not present itself to be
palatable to the Japanese mind and they could not fathom how their Japanese
identity could be openedup to embrace Asia and the rest of the world as one
wholeness. It was Tagore’s sincere attempt to utilize his position as a poet
and a philosopher to impress upon the Japanese mind the importance of guarding
against a thorough Westernization; having not undergone the harrowing
experience of colonization, the Japanese could not accept the critique that
Tagore seemed to pour out in the multiple interviews given during his stay in
Japan.
With the passing of time, Tagore’s critique of
Nationalism gained strength and in his 1922 essay “The Nation,” Tagore
emphatically states,
Nationalism is the training of a whole peoplefor a narrow
ideal; and when it gets hold of their minds it is sure to lead them into moral
degeneracy and intellectual blindness. We cannot but hold firm the faith that
this Age of Nationalism, of gigantic vanity and selfishness, is only a passing
phase in civilization, and those who are making permanent arrangements for
accommodating this temporary mood of history will be unable to fit themselves
for the coming age, when the true spirit of freedom will have sway.
With the unchecked growth of Nationalism the moral
foundation of man’s civilization is unconsciously undergoing a change. The
ideal of the social man is unselfishness, but the ideal of the Nation, like
that of the professional man, is selfishness. (The English Writings of
Rabindranath Tagore, vol. 2, 549-550)
In his JapanJatri, Tagore has analyzed the
Japanese character by stating that Japan felt impelled to prove its strength
and greatness by enforcing her military prowess and eschewing her spiritual
values of peace, tolerance and forgiveness. Tagore tracesinspiration of Japan’s
building of her military strength to the doctrines popular in contemporary
Germany. These observations of Tagore were to prove prophetic on the eve of the
World War II. It was also during that time i.e. in 1938 that an international
conflict between Tagore and the Japanese writer Yonejiro Noguchi was unleashed
through the open letters exchanged between the two that spread across the world
through newspapers and magazine articles. In those letters, Noguchi attacked
Tagore for the latter’s stance on Chiang Kai-Shek (Hori 35). He further
insisted that Tagore support the Japanese ideal of “Asia for Asians” and accept
the validity of Japan’s warmongering. Tagore responded by writing, “The
doctrine of ‘Asia for Asia’ which you enunciate in your letter, is an
instrument of political blackmail, has all the virtues of the lesser Europe
which I repudiate and nothing of the larger humanity that makes us one across
the barriers of political levels and divisions.” (Sarkar 77)
Tagore’s encounter with Fascism
While in Tagore’s visit to Japan and his visit to China
in 1930, he was predominanatly contending with the narrow exclusiveness of nationalism,
his 1926 visit to Italy exposed Tagore to the perils of Fascism that had gained
roots in Italy under the rule of Mussolini. It was through two Italian
professors, Carlo Formichi and Guiseppe Tucci, that Mussolini first reached out
to Tagore. They came to join Tagore’s educational institution Visva-Bharati
bringing with them numerous Italian books as gifts from Mussolini to Tagore. It
was when the inhuman and tyrannical truth of Fascism was unknown in India. In
fact, Mussolini was lauded by a section of people as a brilliant and
charismatic leader who had raised Italy from darkness. Through the two Italian
professors, an invitation was extended to Tagore by Italy which he accepted and
also invited his close associates to accompany him. Among those were the
secretary to Visva-Bharati, Professor Prasanta Chandra
Mahalanobis and his wife Nirmalkumari Mahalanobis. However, that the trip
was politically motivated on the part of Italy remained entirely obfuscated and
in order to prevent Tagore from being surrounded by anyone other than
Mussolini’s followers, the passage of Professor Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis
and his wife Nirmalkumari Mahalanobis were cancelled. The Mahalanobises set
sail privately after Tagore had already departed for Italy with his small
retinue. After their arrival in Rome, when they reached the hotel where Tagore
was staying, they found out that access to Tagore was being strictly controlled
by Formichi so much so that the couple were initially denied entry to meet
Tagore. They gradually found out that under the instructions of Mussolini,
Tagore’s visit was tailored to let him witness only what Mussolini desired.
Even the interviews given by Tagore were translated by Formichi to alter the
contents of Tagore’s responses and create the impression that he was expressing
high praise for Mussolini and his regime. NirmalkumariMahalanobis records in
her memoir,
…in his talks and interviews given to the newspapers, the
Poet constantly kept on reminding everyone that however good the administration
of a country might be, what was more important was the development and
expression of personality. That development cannot be beneficial if the state
destroys the freedom of individual thought. The Poet …was also expressing the
criticisms that arose in his mind. But Formichi, in quite an elaborate manner,
was excluding this criticism and only highlighting the praise for newspapers.
(Mandal 44)
This deception was detected only when Prasant Chandra
Mahalanobis collected the articles from newspapers and meticulously created
rough English paraphrases. It is to be noted that Tagore was critiquing the
lack of personal freedom and highlighting the importance of freedom of thought
and expression even though his exposure to Mussolini’s regime was strictly
controlled by Mussolini himself. Once Tagore was informed by the Mahalanobis
couple as to how he was being turned into a tool of Fascist propaganda, and
anti-Fascist notable members of the Italian society that told Tagore that
nobody can meet him without the direct permission of Mussolini, Tagore decided
to question Mussolini himself. Since Tagore wanted to meet the anti-Fascist
Italian philosopher Beneditto Croce, in a public garden-party, he directly
demanded of Mussolini that the meeting be arranged and the latter was trapped
into a situation where he had to consent. A student of Croce secretly brought
him to meet Tagore in the early hours of the morning in order to prevent the
scrutiny and presence of Formichi. In the private dialogue that followed, Croce
provided Tagore a true picture of Italy under Fascist regime. Tagore later
quoted Croce as telling him,
You have come to this country, and every day your praise
for this administration is being published in the newspapers. I was constantly
thinking that if I somehow got a chance to meet you, I would let you know about
the actual condition of the country. I have read your writing, I know about
your ideals, your opinions. I understood that you were praising them without
knowing anything. (Mandal 49)
Tagore’s meeting with Croce was followed by his
encounters with Andrée Karpèles, Dal Hogman and Duke Scotti all of whom echoed
the sentiments of Croce and warned Tagore that he was being exploited to act as
an agent of Fascist propaganda. Tagore’s shock with the situation reached its
height when, after departing from Italy, at Villaneuve, he met an anguished
Romain Rolland. Translating for Rolland, his sister said:
If a person like you goes on praising the fascist
government so much, who will the progressive people of the world look up to? If
you also move on to their side, who will fight against this dangerous fascist
ideology? … You are preaching international brotherhood and friendship amid the
worldwide unrest, and that is completely opposite this despicable ideology of
fascism. But how could you agree to that? (Mandal 77-78)
Tagore, who was himself shocked at the perfidy he was
subjected to, strove to put Rolland’s mind at ease about himnot having
undergone any change of ideology but was deceived into being an instrument of
Fascist propaganda. Even though Rolland’s mind was put at ease, the damage had
been done and Tagore had paid the price for his well-known trusting habit. Even
though both Prasanta Chandra as well as Rathindranath Tagore did their best to
get the real news posted back to India, and published in the Visva-Bharati
Bulletin, the news they sent never got published. Perhaps that is the
reason why Tagore bore in his heart disquiet about the truth not being aired by
the witnesses of the events. In a letter to Ramananda Chattopadhyay, Tagore
wrote: “Those who had accompanied me during my foreign travel did not take the
responsibility of protecting my travelogue, and that is why this chapter
remains unknown to people, etc.” (Mandal 3) It is noteworthy that Nirmal Kumari
Mahalanobis’s memoirs were not published till after the death of Tagore.
However, the events that took place in Italy could not
change Tagore’s emphatic statement of his ideology through his lectures,
writings and interviews. After the visit to Italy in 1926, Tagore undertook
multiple other foreign visits where he strongly put forth his opinions about
nationalism and individual freedom. In fact, he faced heavy criticism in China
during his visit there for espousing the cause of internationalism against
narrow nationalism. Chinese scholar Wu Chih-hui wrote, “‘MrTagore,… a petrified
fossil of India’s national past, had retreated into the tearful eyes and
dripping noses of the slave people of a conquered country, seeking happiness in
a future life…” (Guha).
Tagore’s final years were lived under the shadow of the
World War II when the horrible outcome of this narrow nationalism was being
played out across human destinies worldwide. There are multiple memorial
accounts of how aggrieved Tagore was at this global destruction and human
suffering.
Tagore as an Agent of Cultural Transference
Even if Tagore could not convince the world about the
emergent need to abandon the narrow exclusiveness of nationalism, his own
life’s work stands as a testimony to his efforts to take the best from each
culture that he engaged with during his travels across the world. Be it the
Kandy dance that he witnessed during his trip to Sri Lanka, or the dance
costumes bought from Java during his trip there or the Batik work from Indonesia
– Tagore incorporated all these elements into the daily life of Visva-Bharati.
The Kandy dance formed the basis of much of the choreography of the dances of
Arjun in the production of the dance drama Chitrangada
while the dance costume brought from Java was donned by Amita Sen while
performing in Chandalikaunder
Tagore’s direction. Batik work gained a new dimension when, at Santiniketan, it
was done on leather as well as on clothes and the tool used was paintbrush
instead of the traditional Indonesian technique. In fact, the art of
Santiniketan was influenced by the Japanese artists Yokoyama Taikan and Hishida Shunsō who visited
Tagore’s institution in 1902 at the invitation of Tagore and his nephew
Abanindranath Tagore both of whom wanted a Pan-Asia art movement. Tagore,
during his trip to Japan, had stayed for a month and a half at Hara Tomitaro’s
garden villa named Sankien. There, Tagore had composed his collection of poems
titled Stray Birds in which he
captured his experiences of living at that garden villa. Tagore also had the
opportunity to meet and converse with painter Shimomura Kanzan and they both
agreed in their basic approach to paintings of nature (Inaga 157). Tagore was
also particularly impressed with one of Kanzan’s painting titled Yorobōshi in which Tagore saw the
resonance of a passage from the Upanishad.
Through his travels Tagore became a medium of
cross-cultural cultural transference as he brought to Visva-Bharati much of
what he admired and appreciated in other cultures. Some of these cultural
transferences led to cultural adaptations that reinvigorated them thereby
imparting them a unique flavour alongside encouraging people to respect and
value the so-called “otherness” of different cultures.
Tagore promoted a universal culture that formed the basis
of his Visva-Bharati whose motto, Tagore framed as “Where the world meets in a
single Nest”. He faced endless criticism at home for not being patriotic
enough, and abroad for challenging the political ideologies and moods that had
gripped the world. But though it all, Tagore remained a true global citizen who
valued humanity above all else.
Works Cited
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---. Swarger Kachhakachhi. Prima, 2002.
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