☛ We are inviting submission in the field of literature and literary theory in the form of article, book review, poem, short story, travelogue and interview for our regular April issue (Vol. 6, No. 2). The last date for submission is 31 March, 2025.

Revisiting Identity and Agency of Prostitutes: An Analytical Study of Premchand’s Sevasadan - Aisha Haleem

 


REVISITING IDENTITY AND AGENCY OF PROSTITUTES: AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF PREMCHAND’S SEVASADAN

Aisha Haleem

PhD Research Scholar

Department of English and Modern European Languages

University of Lucknow

Lucknow, India

 

Abstract:

Even after having the glorious past and aesthetic related to world’s oldest profession always been targeted and discriminated in our society. Premchand portrayed the courageous character of Suman and Bholi Bai with boldness and sort of openness in colonial period when the mere thought of involving in prostitution and sex work and talking about the same would lead to the bitter judgment and ostracization. Just like Premchand, a writer like Saadat Hasan Manto has written numerous short stories during colonial rule related to partition and prostitution. The aim of this article is to explore and deconstruct the subaltern and marginalized identity of prostitutes, and how the strength and agency of coping with this subjugation through the characters of Suman and Bholi Bai. This paper will also try to answer the research question that how the minds of women is conditioned that they will be accepted and respected in the society only when they choose to be an obedient house wife or a person a person with defined noble profession.

Keywords: Colonial, Courtesan, Feminism, Marginalized, Prostitution, Standpoint

Premchand, born as Dhanpat Rai Srivastava in 1880, is celebrated as one of the pioneers of modern Hindi and Urdu literature. Widely acknowledged as the “Upanyas Samrat” (Emperor of Novels), Premchand brought realism, social consciousness, and humanism to Indian fiction. His works transcend time, reflecting the socio-political and cultural landscape of India during the early 20thcentury.Premchand’s novels are deeply rooted in Indian rural life, and his characters often embody the struggles, hopes, and dreams of the common people. He had an extraordinary ability to portray the complexities of human relationships and societal structures. Themes such as poverty, caste discrimination, women's oppression, and colonial exploitation are recurring elements in his narratives. His masterpiece Godan (The Gift of a Cow) is regarded as one of the finest works in Indian literature. The novel offers a poignant depiction of rural India and explores the life of peasants grappling with debt and social inequality. Another celebrated work, Sevasadan, deals with women's emancipation and questions the prevailing norms of morality and gender roles. What makes Premchand stand out as a novelist is his simple yet powerful language. He avoided ornate expressions, opting instead for a style that could connect with readers from diverse backgrounds. His storytelling is marked by psychological depth and an acute understanding of human emotions, making his characters relatable and timeless. Premchand’s contribution to literature extends beyond his stories; he laid the foundation for socially conscious fiction in India. Through his novels, he gave voice to the marginalized, challenging societal injustices and envisioning a world rooted in equality and compassion. His works remain a source of inspiration, reflecting the essence of Indian life and values with unparalleled honesty (“Premchand - Profile and Biography; Wikipedia contributors).

Sevasadan Market of Beauty, or the House of Service, was initially published in Urdu language with a title Bazar-e-Husn. The title reflecting its deep social underpinnings. Published in Hindi in Calcutta in 1919, this novel by Premchand offers an extraordinary exploration of gender, morality, and societal norms. Set in the colonial era in Varanasi (then Benares), the narrative revolves around a Brahmin woman named Suman, whose life journey becomes a poignant reflection of the struggles and transformations faced by women of her time.

Suman, the protagonist, finds herself trapped in a joyless and oppressive marriage, compelled by her family’s rigid social and financial obligations. Disillusioned and seeking an escape from this bleak reality, she enters the world of courtesans, living in the famed “kothas” of the city. However, the story takes a startling turn when the municipal authorities order these kothas to relocate outside the city limits, citing the need to preserve public morality. This pivotal moment propels Suman into a profound reckoning with her position in society and the consequences it has for her family, particularly her younger sister’s marriage prospects.

Determined to redefine her life, Suman begins serving in a shelter for widows, imparting religious teachings. Yet, she struggles to find fulfillment in this role. After an uncomfortable stint with her sisternow married to a man who was once Suman’s admirer Suman ultimately assumes the role of a teacher in a shelter for children of former courtesans. This shelter, aptly named Sevasadan, becomes the symbolic heart of her redemption and self-realization.

The novel is remarkable not only for its gripping narrative but also for its nuanced depiction of the intersections of class, caste, and gender. It highlights the societal constraints that push women into precarious roles while also showcasing their resilience and capacity for transformation. Premchand’s masterful storytelling and his ability to delve into the emotional and moral dilemmas of his characters make Sevasadan a cornerstone of Hindi literature. Its enduring relevance lies in its critique of social hypocrisy and its call for empathy and reform.

Premchand’s contributions in literature attracts huge number of research works, so does Premchand’s first major novel, Sevasadan (House of Service), originally published in Urdu with the title, Bazaar-e-Husn. Krupa Shandilya published a paper, “The Widow, the Wife, and the Courtesan: A Comparative Study of Social Reform in Premchand’s Sevasadan and the Late Nineteenth-Century Bengali and Urdu Novel.” Exploring the struggle of Suman through various identities. Another academician, Mr. Vinod Kumar examines the concept of subalternity in his paper, “The Concept of Subalternism in Munshi Premchand’s Sevasadan.” Published in Journal of Advances and Scholarly Researches in Allied Education. Research scholar and lecturer Abha Tiwari analysis the crisis of identity in Sevasadan through her article titled, “Suman’s Dilemma in Premchand’s Sevasadan: A Crisis of Identity.” Aparna Ajith did a comparative study of Nirmala and Sevasadan in her article, “No Country for Women: An Appraisal of Munshi Premchand’s Sevasadan and Nirmala.” Sneha Sharma from University of Delhi analysed Premchand’s select novels on the basis of space and personhood as the title suggests, “Space and Personhood in Premchand’s Sevasadan and Nirmala.” P. Muralidhar Sharma focused on nationalist discourse in his paper, “Chaste Bodies, Chaste Canon: Nationalist Discourse and the Female Performing Body in Munshi Premchand’s Sevasadan.” Published in South Asian Review. Like this many other research papers and works have done on this novel. After reviewing the literature this paper will try to address the research question that, in order to be socially acceptable and appropriate a woman like Suman has to leave prostitution and become something else, not just this but have to face so many social awkwardnesses and always craving for acceptance. Even after having a glorious and aesthetic past of art, poetry and culture of sophistication prostitution has always been looked down upon. Suman, the central character in Sevasadan, struggles with an identity crisis and an ongoing sense of insecurity from the very beginning. She aspires to stand out and be superior to those around her. As the eldest daughter of Krishnachandra, an upright Police Sub-Inspector, Suman grows up in a reasonably comfortable environment alongside her younger sister, Shanta. However, the two sisters differ markedly in their personalities. While Suman is attractive, ambitious, and somewhat vain, Shanta is gentle, modest, and accommodating. Suman frequently yearns for privileges exceeding those granted to her sister; even when given identical saris, Suman would become resentful, while Shanta would accept hers without complaint.

Suman’s seemingly stable life takes a dramatic turn due to the harsh realities of societal expectations. Krishnachandra struggles to arrange a suitable marriage for her because he cannot afford the dowry demanded by prospective grooms. This inability causes him great regret, and he reflects bitterly that his adherence to honesty has left him powerless, lamenting that had he engaged in corruption like others, he might have been able to provide for his daughter’s dowry. Determined to change his fortune, he attempts to take bribes but, inexperienced in such practices, he is caught and imprisoned. His wife exhausts their savings trying to secure his release, which leaves the family in dire straits.

These events bring a sudden upheaval in Suman’s life. Forced by circumstances, her mother sends her to live with her uncle, Umanath, who reluctantly takes her in. However, Suman faces ill-treatment there, despite Umanath’s efforts as her guardian. For a year, he attempts to find her a suitable match but meets with failure due to his own limited financial means. Finally, Umanath, desperate to fulfill his responsibility, arranges Suman’s marriage to Gajadhar, a poor widower in his thirties but from a higher caste. This decision sacrifices considerations of prestige, education, appearance, and morality.

Suman’s life takes an unexpected turn due to a series of sporadic incidents that ultimately transform her from an ordinary housewife into a prostitute. One such incident occurs when she is surprised to see Bholi hosting a moulood, a religious gathering attended by several influential figures, including her husband’s employer and respected religious leaders. Suman is outraged by what she perceives as social hypocrisy, but her husband reassures her by explaining that times have changed due to English education, which has made people more tolerant. He further adds that Bholi Bai is highly regarded in society. Despite her husband’s words, Suman remains curious about Bholi’s extravagant lifestyle. Bholi, noticing her interest, eventually invites Suman to her place. Although Gajadhar strongly opposes the idea, Suman cannot resist the temptation. Frustrated, he warns her that wealth does not equate to greatness and criticizes the arrogance of the rich, who, in his view, disregard religion. Following this, Suman attempts to lead a more devout life. She begins to bathe in the holy river daily and recites passages from Tulasi’s Ramayana to the women in her neighbourhood. However, as noted by Dalmia, this practice does not bring her true inner peace; instead, it gives her a sense of moral superiority over people like Bholi. The novel is a powerful social critique of the status of women, particularly within the rigid moral framework of early 20th-century Indian society. The novel explores themes of gender roles, social hypocrisy, and the intersection of morality and economic necessity. The protagonist, Suman, undergoes a dramatic transformation from a housewife to a courtesan and later to a social reformer, highlighting the challenges faced by women in a patriarchal society. Vasudha Dalmia emphasizes the significant role of courtesans in nineteenth and early twentieth-century Banaras (Kashi), describing the city as the most prestigious in the subcontinent, with courtesans holding a position of great influence. Beyond their social status, they actively participated in public events and wielded considerable power. The city’s social and ritualistic life often revolved around them. Suman becomes aware of their authority and respect when she visits Beni Park. While she faces mistreatment and humiliation for merely sitting on a bench, the courtesans who arrive later are received with utmost respect and honour (26).

One of the central themes of Sevasadan is the hypocrisy of society regarding women’s morality. The novel illustrates how a woman's worth is often determined by her social status rather than her character. Suman, initially an unhappy wife, is forced into prostitution due to economic and social pressures. However, when she gains wealth and influence as a courtesan, the same society that shunned her begins to respect her. This stark contrast highlights how societal respect is tied more to economic power than to virtue. Premchand critiques the double standards of men, who exploit women while simultaneously upholding moral ideals that restrict them. Gajadhar, Suman’s husband, represents the typical patriarchal mindset, he demands obedience from his wife but fails to provide her emotional or financial security. His disapproval of Suman’s later choices reveals the selective morality that condemns women while allowing men to escape scrutiny. It goes without saying that society establishes norms and regulations that its members are expected to follow. Additionally, it has created systems to address any irregularities that might threaten its stability. Despite progress in science and technology, we still live in a world where a woman's character and morality are often judged by societal standards as rigid as the ticking of a clock (Ajith). Suman’s journey in Sevasadan is not just about her fall from grace but also about her empowerment. Unlike traditional female protagonists in literature of that time, Suman evolves into an independent thinker. Though she initially succumbs to social pressures, she ultimately takes control of her life. Her decision to leave prostitution and work for the welfare of abandoned women reflects Premchand’s belief in women’s capacity for self-improvement and social change.

However, Suman’s redemption is still confined within societal expectations. While she becomes a reformer, her transformation aligns with conventional notions of respectability. This raises questions about whether Premchand’s portrayal of women’s liberation is truly radical or still bound by conservative values. The novel highlights the economic constraints that drive women into prostitution. Suman’s descent into this life is not due to personal choice but rather the lack of financial security and social support. Through her story, Premchand emphasizes that morality is often a privilege afforded only to the economically stable. Women like Suman, abandoned by society, are forced to make difficult choices for survival. The society does not hesitant in disrespecting only Suman but her whole family. Despite holding a prestigious position in Brahmin society, Pandit Umanath is portrayed as an underdog, as reflected in Bejnath’s remarks to Madan Singh, “They aren’t low caste, but the situation is still quite grave. The bride’s father was recently released from prison and her older, sister is a courtesan. Sumanbai from Dalmandi is this girl’s sister” (Premchand 147). The struggle for survival and the fear of death are common vulnerabilities among the oppressed. When Vitthaldas approaches Seth to request a donation for the rehabilitation of courtesans, Seth genuinely wishes to contribute. However, due to prevailing political conflicts, he chooses to remain silent on the matter. Premchand strongly believed in the tangible realities of politics, where outcomes are shaped not by predetermined notions but by politically constructed narratives. This is evident in the village of Amola, where the residents remain subservient to Pandit, a figure of high political standing. Similarly, Dr. Shyamcharan, the Vice-Chairman of the Board, is also caught in the web of political influence. When Padam Singh seeks his approval for the resolution concerning courtesans, Dr. Shyamcharan hesitates, fearing official backlash. Rather than making a definitive decision, he shifts responsibility to the larger Municipal Council. His political subservience is evident when he tells Padam Singh that while he supports the resolution, as a government-appointed member, he must first determine the government’s stance before taking any action on such social issues (Kumar 228), “I am completely in agreement with the resolution, but you are well aware that I am a government-nominated member. Until I find out what the government thinks of this solution. I can’t help you in these social concerns” (Premchand 159-60).

At the same time, Premchand also critiques the commodification of women. Even when Suman gains wealth as a courtesan, she realizes that her dignity is still compromised. This underscores a larger theme in the novel, the constant struggle of women against economic and societal forces that seek to control them.Perhaps this was the reason that made her to serve as the manager of an orphanage for the young daughters of courtesans, the name of that orphanage was Sevasadan uses religion as a double-edged sword in Sevasadan. On one hand, religious customs are depicted as tools of oppression that confine women to strict moral codes. On the other hand, religion also provides a path for redemption and social service. Suman’s transformation involves adopting religious rituals, but it is through her actions rather than mere devotion that she attains respect. The novel also reflects the influence of contemporary reform movements that sought to uplift women. The establishment of Sevasadan (a home for destitute women) symbolizes the rise of social awareness regarding women’s rights and rehabilitation. However, the novel stops short of advocating radical change, as Suman’s ultimate redemption is still tied to traditional ideals of female virtue. 

Premchand employs a realist narrative style, blending social critique with deep psychological insight. His characters are complex and multi-dimensional, reflecting the moral dilemmas faced by individuals in a changing society. The dialogues are natural, and the descriptions of early 20th-century Indian society are vivid, making Sevasadan a compelling social document as well as a literary masterpiece. Additionally, Premchand uses irony effectively to expose societal contradictions. For instance, the very people who ostracized Suman later admire her when she attains success, highlighting the fickleness of social morality. It is a groundbreaking novel that exposes the harsh realities of women’s lives in colonial India. It challenges social hypocrisy, examines the economic and moral dilemmas faced by women, and underscores the need for reform. While Suman’s transformation from a victim to a reformer is inspiring, the novel also reveals the limitations placed on women’s liberation by societal norms. Overall, Sevasadan remains relevant today as a critique of gender inequality and social injustice. Premchand’s powerful storytelling and deep humanism make it a timeless classic that continues to provoke thought and inspire change.

In conclusion one can observe and comprehend that the novel depicts the journey of a protagonist Suman from domestic projects to a famous courtesan and then to become a teacher. Her quest for self and for the truth about the hypocrite society beautifully portrayed and presented the duality of the society that a person with an odd profession without harming anyone’s peace cannot live in peace and the person under the dominance of her husband and the caretaker whether her husband or father has to obey irrespective of them being manipulated and humiliated. In novel also instead of giving courtesans equal rights, people like Padam Singh urged for their recapitalization without giving thought to their consideration. Premchand also shows that even after recapitalization and everything Prostitutes have to accept the unaccepted attitude and tendency of the society just like Suman was still humiliated. Although Suman leaves behind her past as a courtesan, she continues to face social exploitation and discrimination. When Sadan’s newborn child is six days old, a celebration is held, attended by Madan Singh, Bhama, and Subhadra. During the event, Bhama speaks about Suman in a demeaning manner, referencing her past association with prostitution. She even advises Subhadra to keep Suman from entering their home. Padam Singh, despite his influence, ultimately conforms to societal expectations and norms, highlighting the persistent stigma attached to Suman’s past. The standpoint of Premchand is very clear that the marginalised group of our society is also the part of our society, and talking about prostitutes who have history of their own are subject to be treated equally and neutrally just like many writers who have treated them equal. The novel undoubtedly depicts the high morals of the society and while portraying the characters of kotha Premchand did not skip elements of aesthetics related to tawaif culture such as singing, dancing and poetry etc.

Works Cited

Ajith, Aparna. “No Country for Women: An Appraisal of Munshi Premchand’s Sevasadan and Nirmala.” Scholarly Research Journal for Humanity Science & English Language, 2018. https://doi.org/10.21922/SRJHSEL.V6I26.11580. Accessed 6 Dec. 2024.

Dalmia, Vasudha. “Vision of a New Banaras and New Novel in Hindi” Visualizing Space in Banaras: Images, Maps, and the Practice of Representation, Edited by Martin Gaenszle, Jörg Gengnagel, Harrassowitz Verlag, 2006, pp. 325-348.

Kumar, Vinod. “The Concept of Subalternism in Munshi Premchand’s Sevasadan, Journal of Advanced and Scholarly Researches in Allied Education, vol. 15, no. 1, 2018, pp. 225-230. https://ignited.in/index.php/jasrae/article/view/7610/15020. Accessed 7 Dec. 2024.

Premchand, Munshi. Sevasadan. Translated by Snehal Shingavi, OUP, 2005.

“Premchand - Profile and Biography | Rekhta.” Rekhta, www.rekhta.org/authors/premchand/profile. Accessed 10 Dec. 2024.

Roy, Prof. (Dr.) S. C, and Raksha Kumari. “Women Persecution in Premchand’s Novels.” Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, vol. 11, no. 9, 2024, pp. 103-107. www.jetir.org. 8 Dec. 2024.

Shaheen, Dr. Sabiha. “Munshi Premchand: The Emperor of Novels.” International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts, vol. 1, no. 3, 2013, pp. 567-572. www.ijcrt.org. 8 Dec. 2024.

Shandilya, Krupa. “The Widow, The Wife, and The Courtesan: A Comparative Study of Social Reform in Premchand’s Sevasadan and The Late Nineteenth Century Bengali and Urdu Novel.” Comparative Literature Studies, vol. 53, no. 2, 2016, pp. 272-288. https://doi.org/10.5325/complitstudies.53.2.0272. Accessed 6 Dec. 2024.

Sharma, P. Muralidhar. “Chaste Bodies, Chaste Canon: Nationalist Discourse and the Female Performing Body in Munshi Premchand’s Sevasadan.” South Asian Review, vol. 42, no. 3, 2020, pp. 234-249. https://doi.org/10.1080/02759527.2020.1821570. Accessed 8 Dec. 2024.

Sharma, Sneha. “Space and Personhood in Premchand’s Sevasadan and Nirmala.” International Journal of Language, Literature and Translation Studies, vol. 3, no.1, 2016, pp. 333-338. http://www.ijelr.in. Accessed 8 Dec. 2024.

Tiwari, Abha. “Suman’s Dilemma in Premchand’s Sevasadan: A Crisis of Identity.” Criterion, vol. 8, no. 8, 2017, pp. 077-085.

Wikipedia contributors. “Premchand.” Wikipedia, 17 Jan. 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premchand. Accessed 10 Dec. 2024.