The Echoes of Inner Conflicts: The Importance
of the Study of the Representation of Trauma in Indian Literature in English
Reshma Dugar,
PhD Research Scholar,
IIS (Deemed-to-be University),
Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.
Abstract: This article explores the depiction of trauma in contemporary Indian
narratives in English focusing on five primary texts by regional writers.
Through these narratives the study addresses diverse forms of trauma, including
gendered trauma, the trauma of sexual identity, and traumas linked to societal
oppression, displacement and marginalisation. The narratives here are explored
through the lens of trauma theories both western and regional, confirming the
need to study trauma in the cultural and socio political context of the Indian
society. The article also shows how trauma is individual and collective in
Indian narratives, and how the representative techniques of trauma the like
fragmented memory, symbolism, identity and resistance play an important role in
the understanding of trauma and the processes of its healing. Drawing from various
interdisciplinary studies, this article highlights the significance of
examining the representation of trauma in Indian narratives to uncover the root
causes of trauma in Indian society and explore potential paths for healing.
Keywords: Trauma,
Indian literature, Interdisciplinary, Memory, Marginalisation, Gender, Sexual
Identity.
Introduction of Trauma
Trauma often engenders a profound and pervasive silence,
which can be considered one of its most insidious effects. It defies
quantification, being inherently subjective and resistant to verbal expression.
Its impact transcends immediate understanding, penetrating deeply into the
psyche where it remains largely unresolved. Like a persistent spectator, it
recurrently surfaces in consciousness, inflicting damage that seems
irreparable.
The study of trauma in literature is now, a trending field
that offers profound insights into the human condition and the ways in which
individuals and societies navigate experiences of profound suffering. In fact,
it’s the need of the hour with mental well- being, being the most discussed
topic of contemporary times. In the context of Indian literature, the
representation of trauma is particularly significant, given the rich tapestry
of cultures, languages, and histories that characterize the subcontinent. This
research aims at exploring the importance of studying trauma in Indian
literature, with a focus on selected contemporary works from various vernacular
languages that have been translated into English. It argues that such study is
crucial for gaining a deeper and more accurate understanding of the changing
voices in Indian society and culture, and for recognizing the unique ways in
which trauma is experienced and represented in this context.
Trauma is the Greek word for "wound" According to American Psychological
Association (APA) trauma is “an emotional response to a terrible event like an
accident, rape, or natural disaster.” This psychological
reaction to emotional trauma now has an established name: post-traumatic
stress disorder, or PTSD. The
literary definition of trauma refers to the representation and exploration of
psychological and emotional wounds, distress, and lasting effects resulting
from deeply distressing or disturbing experiences in literature, including
novels, poetry, and other forms of storytelling. Cathy Caruth is a prominent figure in trauma studies and her
theory of trauma in literature has had a significant impact on the field. Her
work, particularly in the books "Unclaimed Experience: Trauma, Narrative,
and History" (1996) and "Trauma: Explorations in Memory" (1995),
has shaped how we understand trauma in literary texts. In her book Unclaimed
Experience she defines trauma as “In its most general definition, trauma
describes an overwhelming experience of sudden or catastrophic events in which
the response to the event occurs in the often delayed, and uncontrolled
repetitive appearance of hallucinations and other uncontrolled phenomenon”.
(11) Sigmund Freud's definition
of childhood trauma, from his work "Beyond the Pleasure Principle"
(1920), is: "The event, the trauma, which is pathogenic [disease- causing]
and the process which leads from it to the illness, are not identical with each
other. The trauma is the moment at which the normal, the course of life, is
interrupted; illness is the subsequent, often lifelong, accommodation"
(Freud, 1920, p. 14). His observations on the representation and effects of
trauma go a long way in helping in the process of understanding the behavioural
patterns of individuals be it in real or in narratives.
Judith Herman developed a comprehensive understanding of complex trauma
and coined the term “Complex PTSD." She highlighted the psychological and
emotional impacts of prolonged or repeated trauma, particularly in cases of
interpersonal abuse or captivity. Her work emphasizes the importance of safety
and empowerment in the healing process. “When
trust is lost, traumatized people feel that they belong more to the dead than
to the living.” (Herman p. 52).
Janina Fisher contributed to the field of trauma by exploring the
impact of trauma on the body and integrating somatic approaches into
therapy. According to her the mind has a
way of storing up memories and feelings, keeping them tucked away from our
daily awareness. This can sometimes result in behaviours where a person feels
disconnected or detached from reality. She developed the concept of the
"trauma capsule," where unprocessed traumatic memories are
encapsulated in the body, leading to physical and psychological symptoms.
Contemporary theorist Michelle
Balaev’s critique of the universal approach to trauma is
important for contextualizing trauma within Indian socio-cultural realities.
Balaev’s insistence on the importance of place, culture, and individual
experience in trauma narratives allow for a more nuanced reading of how trauma
is represented differently in each of these texts, particularly in relation to
caste, gender, and displacement.
Additionally,
the field of trauma theory is constantly evolving, and new perspectives
continue to emerge over time. Overall, trauma studies in literature have
evolved to encompass a wide range of topics and perspectives, reflecting the
ongoing importance of understanding how literature can illuminate the human
experience of trauma. It provides a space for critical analysis and empathetic engagement
with the complex narratives of suffering and survival in the literary world.
Trauma
and Literature
Sigmund
Freud's work on psychoanalysis in the late 19th and early 20th centuries laid
the foundation for understanding how traumatic experiences could affect the
human psyche. His ideas expressed in his books Introduction to Psychology (1917)
and The Interpretation of Dreams (1920) about repression, trauma, and
the unconscious mind greatly influenced subsequent discussions of trauma in
literature. The aftermath of World War II saw a surge in literary works that
explored the traumatic experiences of soldiers and civilians. Writers like Kurt
Vonnegut (e.g., "Slaughterhouse-Five") and Joseph Heller (e.g.,
"Catch-22") used dark humour and satire to depict the absurdity and
horrors of war. The Holocaust had a profound impact on literature, and survivor
testimonies like Elie Wiesel's "Night" and Primo Levi's "If This
Is a Man" became important works in the study of trauma. These texts grapple
with the unimaginable horrors of the Holocaust and the long-lasting
psychological scars it left on survivors. Feminist scholars have played a
significant role in trauma studies, examining how gender and sexual trauma are
represented in literature. Works like Toni Morrison's "Beloved"
explore the trauma of slavery and its effects on African American women. The
advent of critical theories such as postcolonialism and postmodernism expanded
the scope of trauma studies. Scholars began to investigate how colonialism,
displacement, and cultural trauma are portrayed in literature. Philosopher
Martha Nussbaum, suggests that literature is a major part of developing one’s
relationship to the world and to others. In her 1997 book Cultivating
Humanity: A Classic Defence of Liberal Education, she argues that,
“citizens
can’t think well on the basis of factual knowledge alone” and instead, must
cultivate what she calls “the narrative imagination” (44). She defines this as,
“the ability to think what it might be like to be in the shoes of someone
different from oneself; and to understand the emotions and wishes and desires
that someone so placed might have, including the many ways in which social
circumstances shape emotions and wishes and desires” (44). Later, in her book Not
for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities (2010), she reiterates her
ideas about literature almost word-for-word:
“Citizens
cannot relate well to the complex world around them by factual knowledge and
logic alone. The third ability of the citizen, closely related to the first
two, is what we can call the narrative imagination. This means the ability to
think what it might be like to be in the shoes of a person different from
oneself, to be an intelligent reader of that person’s story, and to understand
the emotions and wishes and desires that someone so placed might have.” (95)
Contemporary
literature continues to engage with trauma in diverse ways, addressing issues
such as war, terrorism, immigration, and identity. Collective trauma and
personal trauma are distinct yet interconnected concepts that involve
experiences of overwhelming distress and disruption. While personal trauma
refers to individual experiences of suffering, collective trauma involves the
psychological and emotional impact of traumatic events on groups, communities,
or societies. These events can include natural disasters, wars, genocides, or
societal injustices. Collective trauma can affect the shared beliefs, values,
and identity of a community or society. The Holocaust is a collective trauma
that profoundly affected not only the survivors but also future generations of
Jewish people, leading to a lasting impact on their cultural identity and
collective memory. In recent times the 9/11 terrorist attack is also an example
of collective trauma.
Significance
and Impact of Trauma in Indian Narratives in English
In
India, events such as colonialism, partition, caste and class, poverty, and
diasporic trauma have been the basis of collective trauma which have left deep
scars on the psyche of the nation. This is clearly reflected in its art and
culture, and writers have continuously explored this theme in their narratives.
From Indian English literature to Indian Writings in English these themes have
been explored extensively. While collective trauma is a generalized and
objective phenomenon, it takes on a subjective dimension when viewed through
the lens of individual experience. The impact of a traumatic event on an
individual's personality can vary significantly, with differences in the degree
of suffering and its lasting effects. It is widely understood that pain
resulting from trauma is not easily comparable due to its deeply personal
nature.
Personal
or emotional trauma refers to individual experiences of severe distress or harm
that overwhelm a person's ability to cope. It often results from events such as
physical or sexual abuse, natural disasters, accidents, or witnessing violence.
Personal trauma can have long-lasting effects on an individual's mental,
emotional, and physical well-being. For example, a person who has experienced
childhood abuse may struggle with trust and intimacy in relationships
throughout their life. A survivor of a car accident may develop post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD) and experience flashbacks and nightmares. Trauma,
whether brief or chronic, can profoundly impact individuals, shaping their
lives in various ways. Chronic trauma, stemming from severe experiences such as
the loss of a loved one, violent encounters, rape, abuse, or torture during
childhood or early years, can persist in the psyche, exerting enduring effects.
Often, these traumatic events become deeply ingrained in the victim's memory,
influencing their personality, decision-making processes, and ability to adapt
socially, sometimes without their conscious awareness.
The
study of trauma in the Indian context is crucial due to its unique social and
cultural background. India’s diverse religious, linguistic and regional
identities contribute to a complex tapestry of narratives and experiences. Vernacular Indian languages reflect the
diverse cultural social and historical contexts of the country offering a more
nuanced portrayal of trauma than works by Indian authors in English. By the translation
of these works in English, scholars and readers are exposed to a wider range of
perspectives and experiences, enriching their understanding of Indian society
and complexities. One of the key reasons for studying translated Indian
literature is its ability to provide a more authentic depiction of Indian life
as well as evoke empathy, awareness and social changes.
In
postcolonial Indian literature the portrayal of trauma is diverse and nuanced,
capturing the intricacies of Indian society and its complex histories marked by
violence, oppression and struggles with identity. It serves as a lens to
explore how people and communities navigate the lasting effects of colonialism,
caste, gender and sexual discrimination. Indian literary works provide a rich landscape
for delving into the ways trauma is felt and depicted. Authors writing in both
English and regional languages have examined the aftermath of historical and
social violence often mirroring the psychological and emotional effects of
trauma on their characters and communities.
The
five chosen works of fiction in this research showcase various manifestations
of trauma providing a holistic perspective on how different dimensions of
trauma are represented within Indian storytelling. The authors use various
narrative techniques like symbolism, fragmented memory, flashback, non-linear
narration, snapshot etc. to portray the themes of traumas of gender, identity
and displacement and marginalization. It provides valuable perspectives on how
both individuals and communities navigate through challenging experiences.
Michelle Balaev in her book Contemporary Approaches in Literary Trauma
Theory (2014) has asserted that for a more comprehensive framework for
understanding trauma in literature it is necessary to go beyond the traditional
psychoanalytical models and include a broader range of contexts. The theme of
trauma must be analysed from all dimensions: literary, psychological, cultural,
social, political and historical.
Geetanjali
Shree’s The Roof Beneath Their Feet (2019) delves into the emotional and
psychological struggles faced by women in a male dominated world. The story
uses the roof as a symbol to represent both a space where characters navigate
their identities and confront their inner turmoil. Through fragmented memories
and visions the book captures the hidden traumas of women residing at the edges
of society. Characters like Chacho and Lalnagrapple with psychological and
emotional scars of domestic abuse and societal expectations, their suffering is
depicted as an unspoken and overlooked pain. "The roof was
both refuge and prison. It allowed them to escape, but at the same time, it
held them captive to the past." The roof serves as a powerful metaphor for both
liberation and confinement. It provides a refuge from the scrutinizing eyes of
the world yet it also embodies a fragile threshold where past wounds linger. "But the roof was also a reminder. A
reminder of what was left unsaid, undone. It held memories that weighed down on
Lalna like a second skin, refusing to let go."Although the roof
provided an escape from the scrutinizing eyes of the world yet it reminded
Lalna of past wounds which haunted her. It symbolizes how trauma confines
individuals within their own memories and emotions.
Chacho
is a victim of domestic abuse, Lalna struggles with her own identity and the
narrator is unable to cope with the trauma of being a silent witness to both
Chacho and Lalna’s vulnerabilities, and maintaining the secrecy of their
relationship due to societal pressures. By examining the characters experience,
it is possible to gain insights into socio- cultural context of India which is
plagued by gender based inequality.
The
second novel by the same author, The
Tomb of Sand (2021),
which won the International Booker Prize, delves into the theme of
intergenerational trauma of Partition but from a deeply personal and gendered
perspective. The story follows a woman who rediscovers her true self later in
life and journeys across borders bravely confronting the haunting memories of
her past. By intertwining historical events with personal recollections, the
novel weaves, a layered narrative of grief, displacement and resilience. Throughout
the novel the author resorts to the art of non-linear storytelling blurring the
lines between past and the present. Anupurba's journey is marked by the
profound impact of childhood trauma as she strives to break free from the cycle
of pain and hardship that has haunted her family for years. Through a series of
flashbacks and recollections Anupurba begins to piece together the broken
memories of her childhood and unearth the buried secrets of her family.
In this novel Shree uses the symbol of walls and
doors to represent barriers to freedom and also the keeper of secrets. “The walls of the house stood silent,
unmoved by the screams and sobs that once filled the rooms. They had witnessed
everything and yet said nothing, sealing the secrets within.”
“A tomb stands still, encasing stories of those
buried beneath it, but the sand blows over, shifting endlessly. Trauma is both:
the fixed weight of the past and the restless erosion of memory.” This line beautifully captures the
contrast between the static nature of a tomb, symbolizing the weight of
historical trauma, and the shifting, fragmented nature of sand, symbolizing the
impermanence and instability of memory.
Dharmapadajena
and Kalyana Samantray have in their article “Traumatic Experiences and their Representation in Narratives: A Study” discussed
the challenges in representing trauma in literature due to its unspeakable
nature, fragmented consciousness and difficulty in direct linguistic
representation. Henceforth, the authors have to resort to the various narrative
techniques in representing trauma in literature. Its depiction is important to
portray the complex and distressing nature of traumatic experiences, to create
empathic and impactful narratives, resonate with trauma victims and aid in the healing
process through a deeper understanding of it.
Arupa
Patangia Kalita's novel The Loneliness of Hira Barua published in 2016
delves into the impact of violence and displacement in Assam especially on the
women folk. The trauma of gender, marginalisation and victimisation is
strikingly brought out to light. The main character Hira Barua goes through
both and emotional upheaval as she tries to come to terms with losing her home,
identity and sense of belonging. The book also explores the political turmoil
in north-eastern India by employing silence, repetition and displacement as
literary techniques to depict the characters psychological turmoil.
In
the stories of The Loneliness of Hira Barua water and rivers serve as
symbols for the flow of life and the gradual wear away of one’s identity and
surroundings. They reflect the pain of being uprooted from familiar
surroundings and the ‘invasion of inner spaces’ as mentioned by Manashi Bora in
her article History Memory and Trauma in Selected Works of Arupa Patangia
Kalita. Through the lens of trauma these narratives tackle
societal issues like gender inequality, caste discrimination and sexual
marginalization showcasing the complex interplay between personal trauma and
shared histories marked by violence and displacement.
Vasudhendra’s
Mohanaswamy (2016) examines the struggles of homosexuality, internalized
homophobia and caste bias within a rural Indian setting. Through the character
of Mohanaswamy, the author Vasudhendra unravels the traumatic experiences of people
born with queer choices in an orthodox and unaccepting society. They live a life filled with dual trauma, as
they find it extremely difficult to come to terms and accept their own identity
as well as face the backlash of a society that is not inclusive of them. . This
novel focuses on the personal struggles, emotional impact, social stigma,
secrecy and shame and how these factors affect and shape the personality of the
protagonist. His loneliness and rejection are portrayed as deeply
traumatic experiences. Interestingly the author Vasudhendra is himself a gay
activist and in one of his interviews by Preethi Nagraj of Hindustan Times on
July 1st 2017 admitted that coming out of the closet was an easier
task for him than many others-as he is “upper” caste, affluent and a global
citizen in many ways. But this is not so with many Indians with queer sexual
choices residing in rural India, like the protagonist in his novel,
Mohanaswamy.
The non-linear progression of chapters, delve
into various aspects of the main characters journey. This fragmented narrative
style reflects the turmoil Mohanaswamy goes through as he confronts societal
ostracism stemming from his sexual orientation and caste background. There is a
shift from rural to urban spaces and so on, symbolising the socio-cultural
differences in these spaces.
Sachin Kundalkar’s Cobalt
Blue (2013) addresses the trauma of sexual identity and societal
rejection in a conservative Indian family. The novel’s split narrative between
a brother and sister, both in love with the same man, reflects the
psychological trauma of navigating non-normative sexualities in a society that
refuses to accept them.
Cobalt Blue explores the impact of societal
rejection on the emotional well-being of a brother and sister as they reflect
on their relationships with the same man. The dual narrative highlights how
trauma can distort one’s sense of self and relationships with others. The novel
uses the colour blue to symbolize melancholy, longing and love mirroring the
protagonist’s tumultuous journey through unfulfilled desires and societal
disapproval. Through fragmented memories the characters live with the pain of
love that defies societal norms serving as a bittersweet reminder of both joy
and sorrow. Cobalt Blue portrays the challenges faced by the siblings Tanay and
Anuja, due to their sexual preferences in a conservative, heteronormative
society showcasing the emotional toll of concealing one’s true self facing
familial ostracism and navigating unrequited love as forms of deep-rooted
trauma.
Cultural, historical and personal factors play a
role in shaping how we process traumatic experiences. This perspective
challenges the idea that trauma is universally experienced according to Western
theories and highlights how specific contexts influence how we express our
traumas. By looking at trauma through this lens we can better understand
India's distinct social realities, the lasting impact of colonialism the
complexities of trauma and the significance of collective memory. Renowned
scholar Anup Dhar focuses on the history of psychoanalyses in India through the
works of Girindrasekhar Bose, who was a stalwart in the field of
proto-psychiatry in India and was also the first Indian to earn a doctorate in
psychology.
While
examining trauma narratives, it is firstly important to understand the history,
nature, aspects, and factors of trauma, and for this we refer to the origin of
trauma study and the works of trauma theorists. His discussion over trauma
theories with Sigmund Freud through the exchange of letters, which lasted for
almost two decades, clearly states his disagreement over some of the former’s
theories, like the concept of consciousness, the Oedipus complex, the role of
culture, and the origin of neurosis. Since this study relates to the study of
representation of trauma in Indian narratives, it becomes very essential to examine
the root of psychoanalysis in India and how it differs from Western concepts. These
themes shed light on the variety of ideas and influences that have affected the
discussion of psychoanalyses in India.
J.
Roger Kurtz in his book Trauma and Literature (2018) examines trauma in
relation to cultural context and how it is experienced and represented
differently across cultures. It also states that reading and writing about
trauma can have therapeutic effects, helping both readers and writers deal with
and heal from traumatic experiences. Perspectives from psychology, sociology,
and cultural studies have been incorporated, showing that an interdisciplinary
approach is essential for a full understanding of trauma in literature.
Literature about trauma can raise awareness about social issues, influence
public discourse, and contribute to societal change by highlighting the
long-term effects of traumatic events on communities. By exploring these
themes, Trauma and Literature offers valuable insights into how
literature can both reflect and shape our understanding of trauma. Irene
Visser’s chapter in this book ‘Trauma in Non-Western Context’ highlights the
significant contribution of postcolonial and non-western scholars in the
redefining of trauma theories away from the traditional Freudian
psychoanalyses.
Literary works often capture these traumas in ways
that are fragmented, symbolic and deeply moving making this exploration both
intellectually enriching and socially impactful.
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Primary
sources
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Feet. Harper Perennial, 2013.
---. Tomb of Sand. Penguin, 2022.
Vasudhendra. Mohanaswamy. Perennial,
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