Identifying
Dalit representation and portrayals in 21st century Indian Cinema: A critical
analysis
Mirza
Ayaz Beg,
Ph.D. Research
Scholar,
Dr. K. R.
Narayanan Centre for Dalit and Minorities Studies,
Jamia Millia
Islamia,
New Delhi,
India.
Abstract: Cinema
is one of the main performative arts and form of entertainments in India. When
one talks about the effects on society, it is far more profound and impactful.
Its plot, narratives, characters all shape the effects on mind and
consciousness of audiences. If we talk about the nature of cinema, the
discussion on portrayals in Indian Cinema, it becomes a necessity. While Dalit
characters are often confined to the roles of marginalised, victimhood,
poverty, slums, servants and subservience. In the early decades of the 21st
century, tracing stereotypes and emerging counter-narratives, the paper
highlights how the mainstream Bollywood films perpetuate an upper-caste,
upper-class Savarna gaze. The roles of Dalit characters are often rescued by
the upper-caste saviours. Indian cinema is not a subject of students, scholars
dealing with the specialized form of cinema studies. Its range of themes are so
diverse that it is becoming focal points of exploration of sociologists,
historians, scholars of media studies, cultural studies, and experts of
inter-disciplinary research, apart from mainstream reviewer and experts of
cinema industry. Focusing on caste and its representations, which is a matter
of continuous debate and discussions. In this context, tracing light on the
structured stereotyping and perpetuation of the ‘othering’ and the systemic
invisibility of Dalits on the forefront is the core of this paper. Analysing
the films, spanning from the early days of 21st Century films as Lagaan (2001),
Swades (2004) Aarakshan (2011) to Newton (2017), Article 15 (2019) and so on.
It argues for the emergence of "Dalit Cinema" to counter stereotypes,
advocating for genuine representation against mainstream industry's
limitations. The paper will pose questions on the broader themes of cinema used
as to justify caste oppression, justifying power and hegemony. It also
highlights on how cinema got changed during change in times. Spanning over two
decades of Indian cinema, this intensive paper covers those areas dealing Dalit
portrayals as a point of discussion, marginalization
focusing on vantage points of Dalits portrayal, matters of agency, caste
matrix, and subaltern voices.
Keywords: Dalits,
Indian Cinema, Marginalization, Representation, Portrayals, Subaltern
Historical
Background: Experimenting the Caste
Since earlier times, the cinematic portrayals often relied
on the upper-caste, upper-class of society. Therefore, representations of
Dalits are concentrated to the portrayal of an individual character,
subservient or any side character, rather than recognising its systemic and
structural nature. “Historically,
the caste system has formed the regulatory base for the social, cultural and
economic life of the people in India” (Thorat, 287). Cinema is not untouched by
this. Hindi cinema of deprived of the characters, plots, and narratives. Its
dealings with the Dalit issue were conceived as a premature in pre-independence
time. Post-independence era, especially in 1960s and 70s when the upsurge of
some noted filmmakers like Shyam Benegal and Govind Nihalani with experimented
parallel cinema with the issues of caste and feudalism intertwined in the Dalit
issues. Earlier films such as Achhut
Kanya (1936) and Sujata (1959) or Ankur (1974) represent these
reformist approaches but in a limited sense. As noted in historical analyses of
caste in Indian cinema (“Dalit History Month”). Such depictions humanised Dalit
characters but still centred Savarna perspectives, thereby reinforcing rather
than challenging caste hierarchies.
Mainstream
Cinema or Bollywood cinema (colloquially called Hindi cinema) which produces
around 1500-2000 movies in a year. Since Indian cinema is often over
represented with the bodies of upper-caste portrayals. The very beginning of it
was happened since the inception of Indian cinema. In the last decade of 20th
century, few earlier films such Bandit Queen (1994), Chachi 420 (1998) and
Samar (1999) made a way for films amidst the dominating NRI enriched drama of
romance. At the onset of 21st century, there was a start from the
movie Bawandar (2000). The film depicts the true story of Bhanwari Devi, a
Dalit woman who fights caste-based discrimination and gender violence, notably
her gang rape by higher-caste men after challenging social norms.
A shift of narratives:
21st Century Cinema of change
It the turn of
century, first of its kind of film that came on the floor was Jag Mundhra’s Bawandar
(2000), a wonderful movie based on real-life events. Thereafter, the famous
epic blockbuster film, Lagaan (2001)by Ashutosh Gowariker was came to the
floor. Though, it was not directly centred around the caste or Dalit in
particular. However, there was an important side character, who belongs to the
untouchable caste. In fact, his name (Kachra literal meaning of discarded or
trash) who belongs to outcast untouchable community where the main protagonist Bhuwan
name depict community and he persuaded him for the emancipation and support. After
moving further there was another remarkable movie on the floor Swadesh (2004).
It also based on the story of an NRI returned to his village after a long
period of time. Mohan played by Shah Rukh Khan in the guise of the character and
life of Mahatma Gandhi work on the emancipation of the problems of the
villagers and untouchables too. Another movie that come into this time was
Vidhu Vinod Chopra’s After a gap of 6-7 years, Priyadarshan a filmmaker
championed for his comedy genre movies, came on the floor with a real story in
his bucket. In Aakrosh (2010), a male hero was Dalit however the film was based
on feudal and caste-based hierarchy in rural Bihar. At the same time, Prakash Jha
known for his realism in movies, come up with the ongoing debate on Aarakshan (literal
meaning reservation) in 2011.One of leads in this film was played by Saif Ali
Khan, belongs to Dalit as a student. This movie was based on the necessity as
well as loopholes of reservations in education system. Next major change occurred
in a true sense by Marathi filmmaker Nagaraj Manjule through his film Fandry
(2013) and Sairat (2016), which was made in Marathi. At the same time, Neeraj
Ghaywan in his masterpiece under the banner of directed Neeraj given Basant on
the drop of Varanasi. They belong to the Dom community, which is considered an
untouchable. Meanwhile, at the same time, a political satire based on the court-room
drama and agitation outside, Court (2014) by Chaitanya Tamhane. It also
highlighted the assertion of through the movie, which won the nation film award.
The 2016 movie based on the biopic of remarkable figure of Manjhi-the mountain
man (2015), who was who has cut the rock to make road the rural Bihar who
belongs to Mushhar community, which is also a schedule caste and an untouchable
community used to feed on agriculture mice or rats. The next movie is about
newton (2017), nevertheless not directly focused on the theme of caste- it is
still giving framework for the contextualizing the things on few occasions
where the photo-frame of Ambedkar in his house was shown along with a
conversation about the lower caste during marriage ceremony. At that point,
there was a vantage point in 2019 where the many chit-chats were going on the
air with the renowned filmmaker Anubhav Sinha directed Article- 15 (2019). It
was at the time where the questioning was done on a deeper and profound depth.
Thematic Analysis of Key Films: The
visibility on screen
Through the
thematic analysis of these films, it is found that each film is different from
the others in its theme, its plot, characters and its dealing with the issues
of caste or Dalits particularly. Each film has its own treatment of caste,
which ultimately tends to fall under the two broader categories. The first one
is perpetuating the existing social norms, while on the other hand, it has
shown the shift away from the existing ones. There are a decent number of films
to study to analyse the social and cultural aspects of Indian society. Here,
the listing is taken only to some of them.
·
Bawandar
(2000): Based on the
real-life struggle and atrocities of the Bhanwari Devi case. While dealing with
the sexual violence faced by a Dalit woman, it still operated within a
framework that often limited the agency of the victim. A powerful depiction of caste-gender violence in rural
Rajasthan, this film is cited as a precursor to modern anti-caste storytelling
and an example of how caste realities were historically silenced in Bollywood
narratives (“New Wave of Dalit Cinema"). Exploring the intersectionality
of caste and gender in the movie Bawandar. The most infamous case became the basis
of the Vishakha guidelines (1997) by the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India. The
movie directed by Jagmohan Mundhra, the film depicts the true story of Bhanwari
Devi, a Dalit woman from a village in India, who fought against the deeply
ingrained practices of caste-based discrimination and gender-based violence
(Shanker, 2023). The film vividly described the atrocities of upper-caste
landlords, which is truly a depiction of the atrocities everyday Dalits, and
particularly Dalit women, face in their day-to-day lives.
·
Lagaan
(2001) The foremost film based on
colonial exploitation and the Indian response to it. A commercially super hit
film, although it framed the larger question of commoner Indian peoples’
response to the exploitation of the British. However, there was a special
character in the films named Kachra played by Aditya Lakhiya, who was disposed
of physical apparatus. He was also a Dalit man whose name literal meaning is
trash or discarded is in itself a depiction of the social realities of the normalisations.
·
Swades
(2004) is a Shah Rukh Khan-starred film about the journey of an NRI into
the homeland of. This film is portrayed through the Gandhian lens of
emancipation, where the lead character's name was given as Mohan, which
resembles Mohandas Gandhi. It is a journey of a person whose redemption is
going through the lives. A scientist at NASA by profession, Mohan visits his
native village, where he gets entangled with the daily chores and problems of
villagers.
·
Aakrosh
(2010): This multi-starrer action-thriller
film where the main male protagonist was a Dalit man. It was played by Ajay
Devgan, who belonged to the Dalit community. He was
telling a story of a boy who belongs to the lower-caste family living with his
father. They had been working in the fields of another man. He became the
Police officer, thus a change of role by occupation as well.
·
Aarakshan
(2011): Prakash Jha’s Aarakshan (which
literally means 'reservation' in English) was centred on the prevailing
debates around reservation policies in education. It highlights the identity of
caste playing in mediating access to opportunities. Shanker’s study identifies
the film as a turning point for its depiction of Dalit agency within highly
stratified educational institutions in the country. Aarakshan underlines
the reservation politics in and around inequalities in educational institutions
and systems. It also addresses the caste-based perks, entitlements, and
privileges that mainly benefit the upper caste and deprive the Dalit
communities. The discrimination prevailed within the institutional context to
provide an opening into the socio‑economic hurdles faced by Dalit students
seeking social and economic mobility.
·
Fandry (2013–14) Though
not mainstream Bollywood, Fandry is central to understanding
21st‑century Dalit representation. It offers an unfiltered depiction of caste
humiliation and emotional trauma, using realism to convey the violence of the
caste system. Research identifies it as part of a broader shift toward more
visible Dalit narratives in contemporary Indian cinema. Although not Bollywood,
Fandry profoundly influenced caste discourse across Indian cinema. Verma
argues that the film’s stark realism and depiction of caste humiliation mark an
important shift toward centring Dalit suffering and resilience through
authentic narrative voices.
·
Court
(2014) Verma identifies Court as a
critical examination of institutional oppression, portraying how the judiciary
and state mechanisms systematically marginalise Dalit activists. Court
critiques institutional apathy and judicial complicity in marginalising Dalit
activists. The film reflects systemic injustice and emphasises how state
structures contribute to caste oppression.
·
Masaan (2015): The widely acclaimed film, renowned for its sensitivity for
the portrayal of caste through characters with social boundaries. Masaan is
based in the holy city of Kashi, or Banaras. Masaan follows a Dalit male
protagonist whose romantic aspirations collide with already established caste
prejudice. Scholars note that the film exemplifies new cinematic paradigms,
breaking away from one-dimensional Dalit portrayals and embracing emotional
depth and individuality. It represents a nuanced portrayal of a young Dalit
man’s journey oscillating between love, discrimination and professional
aspirations. Shanker notes that the film exemplifies a new cinematic paradigm
in which Dalit characters are given emotional depth and complexity rather than
being confined to victimhood.
·
Manjhi:
The Mountain Man (2015) The film
is based on the real life of mountain man Dashrath Manjhi, who with his
untiring efforts makes it possible to dig out the mountain for the purpose of
creating a road. As the name already suggests, Manjhi is a surname that belongs
to the Mushhar community in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Set in the backdrop of a
post-independence Bihar village, Dashrath Manjhi is a man with the occupation
of menial jobs of rat-catcher or rat-eater. There is a dialogue in the film
where Dashrath Manjhi came back from the city after many years, and he joined
the group of people dancing about equality – “Sab barabar, Sab barabar”.
Meanwhile, he joined the dancing group and hugged the landlord’s son. The
latter was unable to recognise him. After introducing himself, Dashrath Manjhi
mentioned his social category through his surname. He was beaten mercilessly for
this act when the landlord said, “Sab barabarhai to kyasar pe
chadhkemootega."
·
Article
15 (2019): This film, inspired by real caste atrocities, places caste-based
violence at the center of its narrative. It exposes everyday forms of
discrimination, institutional bias, and rural caste hierarchies. Although the
protagonist is upper-caste, the film amplifies Dalit victimisation and
resistance, generating widespread public discourse on caste politics. Article15 (2019) One of the most debated films of
contemporary times, Article 15 was directed by Anubhav Sinha. It is loosely
based on the real-life incidents of the infamous Budaun rape case; the film
touches upon the lives of Dalits. Here the victims are Dalit, and the saviours
are upper-caste people. Albeit, it was more conventional in its gaze of Savarana.
As Bhatt observes, Article 15 directly confronts caste-based violence
and state apathy, dramatizing real-world discrimination and bringing caste
politics to mainstream attention (“The Representation of Dalit
Prejudice").
·
Geeli
Puchhi (2021): This film explores intersectional
caste and gender marginalisation through its Dalit woman protagonist. Verma
argues that its subtle portrayal of urban caste dynamics reflects contemporary
evolutions in Dalit-centred storytelling. A critically acclaimed film released
on the OTT platform Netflix, it is part of the anthology Ajeeb Dastancreated by Neeraj Ghaywan. It
interjectionally traverses the Dalit and ender into each other.
Perpetuating
stereotypes: Theoretical Framework
Surinder S.
Jodhka (2025) argues that the post-independence early Nehruvian elites
mistakenly treated caste would disappear naturally with education. This
"caste-blind" approach, which recognized caste only as a social
disability rather than a structural economic advantage, created a contradiction
between constitutional equality goals and entrenched economic disparities.
Wankhede
critiques that Dalits are often portrayed as a body of victims, hopeless and
voiceless. It is often collided with the strong upper-caste saviour characters
which corroborate the Upper-caste saviour complex. He argues that the Dalit
characters often portrayed in the “Lacking Agency”. It is best suited in the
films such as Lagaan (2001), where the character of Kachra has not agency of
himself rather that dependent on agency of upper-caste hero Bhuvan. At times,
when he was required in the team for his ability to spin the ball, inclusion
was done by upper caste character rather than his assertion. (Wankhede, 2022)
It was also
shown in the film Article 15 where the oppressed class Dalits are dependent on
the Brahmin police officer Ayan Ranjan. Their voices are subdued as a body of
victims. It is also interesting to note that most of the movies based in rural
Uttar Pradesh which is the largest of the population and in Hindi heartland. In
her paper Verma concludes that there are intuitional processes and many social
structures still governed by Brahmanical Patriarchy. (Verma, 2025). Films such
as Aarkshan (2011) promote the upliftment of the marginalized communities
through Education as a tool but it is not alone sufficient to eradicate the
caste-based hierarchical subjugation.
Asserting the Agency: Case study through
Narratives
If we look at
the trend in 21st century, it is found that Dalits are making a
visible presence on the screen. It is more recurrent than the earlier
melodramas and romances on screen. “Once the submissive underdog, he is now
educated, assertive and ready to take on the system. The emerging Dalit hero is
a sign of how Bollywood has evolved.” In a long dialogue when Deepak Kumar, a
Dalit student played by Saif Ali Khan assert his identity
"Achcha!
Hamein mehnat ka path padha rahe hain aap. Aapke khet jote humne, aapke faslein
kaati humne, apke maweshi charaaye humne, aapke joote siye, bail haanke, naav chalaye,
aapki gharon ki gandi naaliyon ki safai ki. Yahaan tak ki aapki tatti bhi sar
par dhoyee humne. Hume mehnat sikhayenge aap! (You are lecturing us about hard
work. We tilled your land, reaped your crop, grazed your cattle, stitched your
shoes, rowed your boat, we have cleaned your dirty drains, we have even carried
your shit on our head. And you lecture us on hard work). "
It is the pain
which reflects in this sentence on behalf of a larger community of lower castes
assigned in the task of working for the others. In the film Masaan (2015), the
new Dalit aspirations taking shape in form of educational and career form. It
does not limit only to the clutches of meek and subservient class. According to Shanker, older Hindi films frequently
perpetuated stereotypes, reinforcing caste dominance rather than uplifting marginalised
narratives. Thus, the early 21st century represents an important period in
which filmmakers began moving beyond these limited frameworks. (Shanker, 2023).
Dalit Filmmakers
a new upsurge of many Dalit filmmakers such Neeraj Ghyawan, Nagraj Manjule, Pa
Ranjith who belong to the marginalised community are precursors of the change.
These shifts are more evident when new filmmakers arrive on the forefront with
the stories they want to convey in their own way. They are more vocal and
assertive in the storytelling and casting the characters. At the same time,
with the rise in regional cinema too, especially in Tamil and Marathi, it was seen
an upsurge in the dealings of Dalit subjects on screen. Kaala, Asuran are the
prime examples of this upsurge. With a warm reception by audience, these films
not only performed well at box-office but also won many awards as well. Some of
them even remake in other languages as well. Dhadak (2018) a Bollywood movie by
Karan Johar a remake of Marathi movie Sairat (2016) is the prime example of
it.
Conclusion
The representations and portrayals of Dalits in Indian
cinema in the early decades of the 21st century witnessed significant changes.
The depiction of Dalits has been increased in the Indian cinema over the period
of time. However, the portrayal of Dalits has also been observed in a varied
degree in Bollywood and other regional cinema. Films such as Aarakshan, Masaan,
Article 15, Fandry and others mark a visible shift from exclusion.
However, it is in atransitory phase where depiction of stereotypical roles and labelling
of Dalits continued at extent. Early 21st-century Indian cinema progressed into
Dalit portrayals where it touches the socio-political and economic aspirations as
well, nonetheless it perpetuates stereotypes at the same time. It is still
lagging behind the authentic "Dalit cinema" in regional films like Sairat
(2016). True evolution demands centring Dalit directors and narratives, as your
prior theses advocate.
While providing space for Dalit narratives, it opened a way
to critical public as well as academic discussions about caste, discrimination
and particularly Dalits in cinema. However, even today major challenges
persist. On the cinematic landscapes, it continues to manifest viewpoints of
the dominant castes and classes. A true and full representation of Dalit
identities remains limited and unjust to the larger community. For a full,
meaningful transformation to happen, Indian cinema must deepen anti-caste or
anti-Dalit stereotypes. It will augment Dalit voices and aesthetics on the
screen to confront the deep-rooted caste hierarchies more directly and overtly.
It will also increase the process of socializing on screen. In nutshell, the
commitment towards a more inclusive cinema is yet to come on the screen. It is
behind the gradual evolutionary practices of representations
of the marginalized groups (as Dalits here). In the early 21st‑century Indian
cinema indicates the beginning of this requisite change. It also underlines the
scope of work in the significant change and work that lies ahead.
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